.github/workflows/rust.yml

@@ -25,9 +25,9 @@ jobs:
         toolchain: ${{ matrix.rust }}
         default: true
         override: true
-    - name: Build
-      run: cargo build
     - name: Format Check
       run: cargo fmt --check
+    - name: Build
+      run: cargo build
     - name: Run tests
       run: cargo test

Cargo.toml

@@ -9,25 +9,30 @@ name = "ngr"
 path = "src/lib.rs"
 
 [dependencies]
-clap = { version = "^3.0.14", features = ["derive"] }
+clap = { version = "4.5.1", features = ["derive"] }
 codespan = "0.11.1"
 codespan-reporting = "0.11.1"
-cranelift-codegen = "0.99.2"
+cranelift-codegen = "0.105.2"
-cranelift-jit = "0.99.2"
+cranelift-jit = "0.105.2"
-cranelift-frontend = "0.99.2"
+cranelift-frontend = "0.105.2"
-cranelift-module = "0.99.2"
+cranelift-module = "0.105.2"
-cranelift-native = "0.99.2"
+cranelift-native = "0.105.2"
-cranelift-object = "0.99.2"
+cranelift-object = "0.105.2"
-internment = { version = "0.7.0", default-features = false, features = ["arc"] }
+internment = { version = "0.7.4", default-features = false, features = ["arc"] }
-lalrpop-util = "^0.20.0"
+lalrpop-util = "0.20.2"
-lazy_static = "^1.4.0"
+lazy_static = "1.4.0"
-logos = "^0.12.0"
+logos = "0.14.0"
-pretty = { version = "^0.11.2", features = ["termcolor"] }
+pretty = { version = "0.12.3", features = ["termcolor"] }
-proptest = "^1.0.0"
+proptest = "1.4.0"
-rustyline = "^11.0.0"
+rand = "0.8.5"
-target-lexicon = "^0.12.5"
+rustyline = "13.0.0"
-tempfile = "^3.5.0"
+target-lexicon = "0.12.14"
-thiserror = "^1.0.30"
+tempfile = "3.10.1"
+thiserror = "1.0.57"
+anyhow = "1.0.80"
+tracing = "0.1.40"
+tracing-subscriber = { version = "0.3.18", features = ["time", "json", "env-filter"] }
+names = "0.14.0"
 
 [build-dependencies]
-lalrpop = "^0.20.0"
+lalrpop = "0.20.2"

build.rs

@@ -45,17 +45,20 @@ fn generate_tests(f: &mut File, path_so_far: PathBuf) -> std::io::Result<()> {
             writeln!(f, "  let mut file_database = SimpleFiles::new();")?;
             writeln!(
                 f,
-                "  let syntax = Syntax::parse_file(&mut file_database, {:?});",
+                "  let syntax = crate::syntax::parse_file(&mut file_database, {:?});",
                 entry.path().display()
             )?;
             if entry.path().to_string_lossy().contains("broken") {
                 writeln!(f, "  if syntax.is_err() {{")?;
                 writeln!(f, "     return;")?;
                 writeln!(f, "  }}")?;
-                writeln!(f, "  let (errors, _) = syntax.unwrap().validate();")?;
                 writeln!(
                     f,
-                    "  assert_ne!(errors.len(), 0, \"should have seen an error\");"
+                    "  let mut validation_result = Syntax::validate(syntax.unwrap());"
+                )?;
+                writeln!(
+                    f,
+                    "  assert!(validation_result.is_err(), \"should have seen an error\");"
                 )?;
             } else {
                 // NOTE: Since the advent of defaulting rules and type checking, we
@@ -67,18 +70,38 @@ fn generate_tests(f: &mut File, path_so_far: PathBuf) -> std::io::Result<()> {
                     f,
                     "  let syntax = syntax.expect(\"file should have parsed\");"
                 )?;
-                writeln!(f, "  let (errors, _) = syntax.validate();")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  let validation_result = Syntax::validate(syntax);")?;
                 writeln!(
                     f,
-                    "  assert_eq!(errors.len(), 0, \"file should have no validation errors\");"
+                    "  assert!(validation_result.is_ok(), \"file should have no validation errors\");"
                 )?;
+                writeln!(
+                    f,
+                    "  let syntax = validation_result.into_result().unwrap();"
+                )?;
+                writeln!(f, "  let syntax_result = syntax.eval();")?;
                 writeln!(
                     f,
                     "  let ir = syntax.type_infer().expect(\"example is typed correctly\");"
                 )?;
-                writeln!(f, "  let ir_result = ir.eval();")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  let ir_evaluator = crate::ir::Evaluator::default();")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  let ir_result = ir_evaluator.eval(ir.clone());")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  match (&syntax_result, &ir_result) {{")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     (Err(e1), Err(e2)) => assert_eq!(e1, e2),")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     (Ok((v1, o1)), Ok((v2, o2))) => {{")?;
+                writeln!(f, "         assert_eq!(v1, v2);")?;
+                writeln!(f, "         assert_eq!(o1, o2);")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     }}")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     _ => panic!(\"mismatched outputs, {{:?}} and {{:?}}\", syntax_result, ir_result)")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  }}")?;
                 writeln!(f, "  let compiled_result = Backend::<JITModule>::eval(ir);")?;
-                writeln!(f, "  assert_eq!(ir_result, compiled_result);")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  match (&compiled_result, &ir_result) {{")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     (Err(e1), Err(e2)) => assert_eq!(e1, e2),")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     (Ok(o1), Ok((_, o2))) => {{")?;
+                writeln!(f, "         assert_eq!(o1, o2);")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     }}")?;
+                writeln!(f, "     _ => panic!(\"mismatched outputs, {{:?}} and {{:?}}\", compiled_result, ir_result)")?;
+                writeln!(f, "  }}")?;
             }
             writeln!(f, "}}")?;
         }

examples/basic/broken1.ngr

@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-x = 5;
-x = 4*x + 3;
-print x;
-print y;

examples/basic/function0001.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+x = 1;
+function add_x(y) x + y;
+a = 3;
+print x;
+result = add_x(a);
+print x;
+print result;

examples/basic/function0002.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+x = 1;
+function add_x(y) x + y;
+a = 3;
+function add_x_twice(y) add_x(y) + x;
+print x;
+result = add_x(a);
+print x;
+print result;
+result2 = add_x_twice(a);
+print result2;

examples/basic/function0003.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+x = 1u64;
+function mean_x(y) {
+    base = x + y;
+    result = base / 2;
+    result
+};
+a = 3;
+mean_x_and_a = mean_x(a);
+mean_x_and_9 = mean_x(9);
+print mean_x_and_a;
+print mean_x_and_9;

examples/basic/function0004.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+function make_adder(x)
+  function (y)
+    x + y;
+
+add1 = make_adder(1);
+add2 = make_adder(2);
+one_plus_one = add1(1);
+one_plus_three = add1(3);
+print one_plus_one;
+print one_plus_three;

examples/basic/generated0001.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+x = 4u64;
+function f(y) (x + y);
+print x;

examples/basic/generated0002.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+b = -7662558304906888395i64;
+z = 1030390794u32;
+v = z;
+q = <i64>z;
+s = -2115098981i32;
+t = <i32>s;
+print t;

examples/basic/generated0003.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+n = (49u8 + 155u8);
+q = n;
+function u (b) n + b;
+v = n;

examples/basic/generated0004.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+d3347 = {
+    s3349 = v3348 = 17175152522826808410u64;
+    print s3349;
+    j3350 = -6926831316600240717i64;
+    g3351 = b3352 = print s3349;
+    g3351;
+    u3353 = v3348;
+    c3460 = p3354 = {
+        w3441 = u3355 = k3356 = v3357 = {
+            j3364 = b3358 = b3359 = {
+                e3363 = o3360 = a3361 = n3362 = v3348 * v3348;
+                print e3363;
+                a3361
+            };
+            v3365 = j3364;
+            o3376 = {
+                p3366 = 62081u16;
+                t3369 = {
+                    k3367 = 3742184609455079849u64;
+                    y3368 = print g3351;
+                    k3367
+                };
+                e3371 = o3370 = p3366;
+                print s3349;
+                l3372 = 50u8;
+                g3373 = 1086766998u32;
+                u3374 = <u64>g3373;
+                p3375 = 13826883074707422152u64
+            };
+            h3379 = v3377 = h3378 = 1513207896u32;
+            x3382 = f3380 = i3381 = <i32>-72i8;
+            a3383 = g3351;
+            q3440 = q3384 = {
+                r3385 = v3365;
+                z3437 = n3386 = {
+                    o3387 = -1428233008i32;
+                    c3388 = s3349;
+                    b3352;
+                    c3389 = c3388;
+                    a3383;
+                    c3390 = 1056u16;
+                    l3433 = {
+                        b3392 = f3391 = -881200191i32;
+                        print o3376;
+                        print v3377;
+                        h3395 = y3393 = j3394 = -2456592492064497053i64;
+                        c3396 = c3388;
+                        f3397 = 2442824079u32;
+                        d3428 = {
+                            n3400 = h3398 = m3399 = v3365;
+                            j3401 = v3348;
+                            t3402 = -10i8;
+                            e3403 = g3404 = print r3385;
+                            e3403;
+                            d3425 = {
+                                u3405 = 51313u16;
+                                l3406 = 235u8;
+                                l3407 = 7030u16;
+                                i3413 = {
+                                    b3352;
+                                    v3408 = o3387;
+                                    i3409 = 42u8;
+                                    q3411 = {
+                                        u3410 = -70i8;
+                                        n3400
+                                    };
+                                    q3412 = print i3409;
+                                    x3382
+                                };
+                                z3414 = b3392;
+                                j3417 = s3415 = o3416 = 7220082853233268797u64;
+                                print i3381;
+                                n3419 = a3418 = -1270109327i32;
+                                o3420 = r3385;
+                                o3421 = x3382;
+                                j3422 = print i3381;
+                                q3423 = -4497i16;
+                                x3424 = -98995788i32;
+                                f3391
+                            };
+                            {
+                                x3426 = r3385 - 13032422114254415490u64;
+                                e3427 = -51i8;
+                                j3401
+                            }
+                        };
+                        k3429 = <u64>c3396;
+                        print j3350;
+                        g3351;
+                        f3430 = -12293i16;
+                        v3431 = 4016608549u32;
+                        t3432 = f3397;
+                        f3391 - -716040069i32
+                    };
+                    r3434 = -12984i16;
+                    s3435 = 293908485953501586u64;
+                    {
+                        print j3364;
+                        h3436 = <u64>7732092399687242928u64
+                    }
+                };
+                u3438 = v3377 * 3168795739u32;
+                p3439 = <i32>-12313i16;
+                u3438
+            };
+            v3348
+        };
+        x3442 = -5279281110772475785i64;
+        y3443 = v3348;
+        b3444 = 2732851783u32;
+        l3456 = l3445 = {
+            v3446 = -27499i16;
+            i3447 = 3517560837u32;
+            z3448 = u3353 * u3355;
+            u3449 = x3442;
+            t3450 = u3353;
+            m3452 = n3451 = u3355;
+            b3453 = m3452;
+            x3455 = t3454 = 2134443760u32;
+            print b3444;
+            b3444
+        };
+        c3457 = l3456;
+        g3351;
+        m3458 = 1822439673528019141u64;
+        d3459 = l3456
+    };
+    k3462 = f3461 = <i32>13u8;
+    g3351;
+    u3463 = -10083i16;
+    v3348
+};
+y3464 = {
+    y3465 = 163u8;
+    y3466 = -7760i16;
+    e3467 = d3347;
+    q3468 = 58708u16;
+    -426970972827051249i64
+};
+t3469 = 524885465u32;
+function b3470 (y3471,c3472,u3473) <u32>1606677228u32;
+y3464;
+-240502590i32;
+v3474 = z3475 = {
+    t3476 = y3464;
+    p3477 = t3469;
+    i3478 = p3477;
+    a3480 = e3479 = t3476;
+    p3477
+};

examples/basic/struct0001.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+struct Point {
+    x: u64;
+    y: u64;
+}
+
+v = 1u64;
+
+function getX(p: Point) -> u64
+    p.x;
+
+function getY(p: Point) -> u64
+    p.y;
+
+function newPoint(x, y) -> Point
+    Point {
+        x: x;
+        y: y;
+    };
+
+function slope(p1, p2) -> u64
+    (getY(p2) - p1.y) / (getX(p2) - p1.x);
+
+origin = newPoint(0, 0);
+farther = newPoint(2, 4);
+
+mySlope = slope(origin, farther);
+print mySlope;

examples/basic/struct0002.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+struct Point {
+    x: u64;
+    y: u64;
+}
+
+test = Point {
+    x: 1;
+    y: 2;
+};
+
+foo = test.x;
+
+print foo;

examples/basic/struct0003.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+struct Point {
+    x: u64;
+    y: u64;
+}
+
+struct Line {
+    start: Point;
+    end: Point;
+}
+
+function slope(l) -> u64
+    (l.end.y - l.start.y) / (l.end.x - l.start.x);
+
+test = Line {
+    start: Point {
+        x: 1;
+        y: 2;
+    };
+    end: Point {
+        x: 2;
+        y: 4;
+    };
+};
+
+foo = slope(test);
+
+print foo;

examples/basic/test0001.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+x = 5;
+y = 4*x + 3;
+print x;
+print y;

examples/basic/test0003.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+v = -2370389138213399653i64;

examples/basic/test0004.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+function u (t,h,z,u,a,f,c) 27u8;
+function s (p,y,k) 10318938949979263534u64;
+o = -98i8;
+print o;

examples/basic/test0005.ngr

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+t = v = 5i64;
+print t;

runtime/rts.c

@@ -1,7 +1,13 @@
 #include <stdint.h>
 #include <stdio.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <string.h>
 #include <inttypes.h>
 
+#define HEAP_SIZE (1024 * 1024)
+
+void *__global_allocation_pointer__ = NULL;
+
 void print(char *_ignore, char *variable_name, int64_t vtype, int64_t value) {
     switch(vtype) {
     case /* U8 = */ 10:
@@ -28,12 +34,29 @@ void print(char *_ignore, char *variable_name, int64_t vtype, int64_t value) {
     case /* I64 = */ 23:
         printf("%s = %" PRIi64 "i64\n", variable_name, value);
         break;
+    case /* void = */ 255:
+        printf("%s = <void>\n", variable_name);
+        break;
+    default:
+        printf("%s = UNKNOWN VTYPE %lld\n", variable_name, vtype);
     }
 }
 
 extern void gogogo();
 
 int main(int argc, char **argv) {
+    __global_allocation_pointer__ = malloc(HEAP_SIZE);
+    if(__global_allocation_pointer__ == NULL) {
+        printf("ERROR: Couldn't allocation heap space.");
+        return 1;
+    }
+
+    if(memset(__global_allocation_pointer__, 0, HEAP_SIZE) != __global_allocation_pointer__) {
+        printf("ERROR: Weird return trying to zero out heap.");
+        return 2;
+    }
+
     gogogo();
+
     return 0;
 }

src/backend.rs

@@ -33,7 +33,10 @@ mod runtime;
 
 pub use self::error::BackendError;
 pub use self::runtime::{RuntimeFunctionError, RuntimeFunctions};
-use crate::syntax::ConstantType;
+use crate::ir::Name;
+use crate::syntax::{ConstantType, Location};
+use cranelift_codegen::entity::EntityRef;
+use cranelift_codegen::ir::types;
 use cranelift_codegen::settings::Configurable;
 use cranelift_codegen::{isa, settings};
 use cranelift_jit::{JITBuilder, JITModule};
@@ -58,9 +61,11 @@ pub struct Backend<M: Module> {
     data_ctx: DataDescription,
     runtime_functions: RuntimeFunctions,
     defined_strings: HashMap<String, DataId>,
-    defined_symbols: HashMap<String, (DataId, ConstantType)>,
+    defined_functions: HashMap<Name, FuncId>,
+    defined_symbols: HashMap<Name, (DataId, types::Type)>,
     output_buffer: Option<String>,
     platform: Triple,
+    next_variable: usize,
 }
 
 impl Backend<JITModule> {
@@ -84,15 +89,28 @@ impl Backend<JITModule> {
         let mut module = JITModule::new(builder);
         let runtime_functions = RuntimeFunctions::new(&platform, &mut module)?;
 
-        Ok(Backend {
+        let mut retval = Backend {
             module,
             data_ctx: DataDescription::new(),
             runtime_functions,
             defined_strings: HashMap::new(),
+            defined_functions: HashMap::new(),
             defined_symbols: HashMap::new(),
             output_buffer,
             platform: Triple::host(),
-        })
+            next_variable: 23,
+        };
+
+        let alloc = "__global_allocation_pointer__".to_string();
+        let id = retval
+            .module
+            .declare_data(&alloc, Linkage::Import, true, false)?;
+        retval.defined_symbols.insert(
+            Name::new(alloc, Location::manufactured()),
+            (id, retval.module.target_config().pointer_type()),
+        );
+
+        Ok(retval)
     }
 
     /// Given a compiled function ID, get a pointer to where that function was written
@@ -123,15 +141,28 @@ impl Backend<ObjectModule> {
         let mut module = ObjectModule::new(object_builder);
         let runtime_functions = RuntimeFunctions::new(&platform, &mut module)?;
 
-        Ok(Backend {
+        let mut retval = Backend {
             module,
             data_ctx: DataDescription::new(),
             runtime_functions,
             defined_strings: HashMap::new(),
+            defined_functions: HashMap::new(),
             defined_symbols: HashMap::new(),
             output_buffer: None,
             platform,
-        })
+            next_variable: 23,
+        };
+
+        let alloc = "__global_allocation_pointer__".to_string();
+        let id = retval
+            .module
+            .declare_data(&alloc, Linkage::Import, true, false)?;
+        retval.defined_symbols.insert(
+            Name::new(alloc, Location::manufactured()),
+            (id, retval.module.target_config().pointer_type()),
+        );
+
+        Ok(retval)
     }
 
     /// Given all the functions defined, return the bytes the object file should contain.
@@ -172,19 +203,45 @@ impl<M: Module> Backend<M> {
     /// value will be null.
     pub fn define_variable(
         &mut self,
-        name: String,
+        name: Name,
         ctype: ConstantType,
     ) -> Result<DataId, BackendError> {
         self.data_ctx.define(Box::new(EMPTY_DATUM));
         let id = self
             .module
-            .declare_data(&name, Linkage::Export, true, false)?;
+            .declare_data(name.current_name(), Linkage::Export, true, false)?;
         self.module.define_data(id, &self.data_ctx)?;
         self.data_ctx.clear();
-        self.defined_symbols.insert(name, (id, ctype));
+        self.defined_symbols.insert(name, (id, ctype.into()));
         Ok(id)
     }
 
+    pub fn string_reference(&mut self, string: &str) -> Result<DataId, BackendError> {
+        match self.defined_strings.get(string) {
+            Some(x) => Ok(*x),
+            None => self.define_string(string),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Reset the local variable counter, because we're going to start a new
+    /// function.
+    pub fn reset_local_variable_tracker(&mut self) {
+        self.next_variable = 5;
+    }
+
+    /// Declare a local variable with the given name and type.
+    ///
+    /// This variable should only be used to reference variables within the current
+    /// function. If you try to reference a variable from another function, random
+    /// things could happen; hopefully, Cranelift will yell at you, but there's a
+    /// small chance everything would work out and you'd end up referencing something
+    /// unexpected.
+    pub fn generate_local(&mut self) -> cranelift_frontend::Variable {
+        let var = cranelift_frontend::Variable::new(self.next_variable);
+        self.next_variable += 1;
+        var
+    }
+
     /// Get a pointer to the output buffer for `print`ing, or `null`.
     ///
     /// As suggested, returns `null` in the case where the user has not provided an

src/backend/error.rs

@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
-use crate::{backend::runtime::RuntimeFunctionError, eval::PrimitiveType, ir::Type};
+use crate::backend::runtime::RuntimeFunctionError;
+use crate::ir::{Name, Type};
 use codespan_reporting::diagnostic::Diagnostic;
 use cranelift_codegen::{isa::LookupError, settings::SetError, CodegenError};
 use cranelift_module::ModuleError;
@@ -30,7 +31,7 @@ pub enum BackendError {
     #[error("Builtin function error: {0}")]
     BuiltinError(#[from] RuntimeFunctionError),
     #[error("Internal variable lookup error")]
-    VariableLookupFailure(ArcIntern<String>),
+    VariableLookupFailure(Name),
     #[error(transparent)]
     CodegenError(#[from] CodegenError),
     #[error(transparent)]
@@ -40,15 +41,25 @@ pub enum BackendError {
     #[error(transparent)]
     Write(#[from] cranelift_object::object::write::Error),
     #[error("Invalid type cast from {from} to {to}")]
-    InvalidTypeCast { from: PrimitiveType, to: Type },
+    InvalidTypeCast {
+        from: cranelift_codegen::ir::types::Type,
+        to: Type,
+    },
+    #[error("Unknown string constant '{0}")]
+    UnknownString(ArcIntern<String>),
+    #[error("Compiler doesn't currently support function arguments")]
+    NoFunctionArguments {
+        function_name: String,
+        argument_name: String,
+    },
 }
 
 impl From<BackendError> for Diagnostic<usize> {
     fn from(value: BackendError) -> Self {
         match value {
-            BackendError::Cranelift(me) => {
+            BackendError::Cranelift(me) => Diagnostic::error()
-                Diagnostic::error().with_message(format!("Internal cranelift error: {}", me))
+                .with_message(format!("Internal cranelift error: {}", me))
-            }
+                .with_notes(vec![format!("{:?}", me)]),
             BackendError::BuiltinError(me) => {
                 Diagnostic::error().with_message(format!("Internal runtime function error: {}", me))
             }
@@ -69,6 +80,15 @@ impl From<BackendError> for Diagnostic<usize> {
             BackendError::InvalidTypeCast { from, to } => Diagnostic::error().with_message(
                 format!("Internal error trying to cast from {} to {}", from, to),
             ),
+            BackendError::UnknownString(str) => Diagnostic::error()
+                .with_message(format!("Unknown string found trying to compile: '{}'", str)),
+            BackendError::NoFunctionArguments {
+                function_name,
+                argument_name,
+            } => Diagnostic::error().with_message(format!(
+                "Function {} takes a function argument ({}), which is not supported",
+                function_name, argument_name
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -119,6 +139,22 @@ impl PartialEq for BackendError {
                 } => from1 == from2 && to1 == to2,
                 _ => false,
             },
+
+            BackendError::UnknownString(a) => match other {
+                BackendError::UnknownString(b) => a == b,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            BackendError::NoFunctionArguments {
+                function_name: f1,
+                argument_name: a1,
+            } => match other {
+                BackendError::NoFunctionArguments {
+                    function_name: f2,
+                    argument_name: a2,
+                } => f1 == f2 && a1 == a2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
         }
     }
 }

src/backend/eval.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
 use crate::backend::Backend;
 use crate::eval::EvalError;
-use crate::ir::Program;
+use crate::ir::{Expression, Name, Program, Type};
-#[cfg(test)]
+use crate::syntax::Location;
-use crate::syntax::arbitrary::GenerationEnvironment;
 use cranelift_jit::JITModule;
 use cranelift_object::ObjectModule;
 #[cfg(test)]
@@ -24,9 +23,12 @@ impl Backend<JITModule> {
     /// library do. So, if you're validating equivalence between them, you'll want to weed
     /// out examples that overflow/underflow before checking equivalence. (This is the behavior
     /// of the built-in test systems.)
-    pub fn eval(program: Program) -> Result<String, EvalError> {
+    pub fn eval(program: Program<Type>) -> Result<String, EvalError<Expression<Type>>> {
         let mut jitter = Backend::jit(Some(String::new()))?;
-        let function_id = jitter.compile_function("test", program)?;
+        let function_id = jitter.compile_program(
+            Name::new("___test_jit_eval___", Location::manufactured()),
+            program,
+        )?;
         jitter.module.finalize_definitions()?;
         let compiled_bytes = jitter.bytes(function_id);
         let compiled_function = unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, fn() -> ()>(compiled_bytes) };
@@ -51,17 +53,16 @@ impl Backend<ObjectModule> {
     /// library do. So, if you're validating equivalence between them, you'll want to weed
     /// out examples that overflow/underflow before checking equivalence. (This is the behavior
     /// of the built-in test systems.)
-    pub fn eval(program: Program) -> Result<String, EvalError> {
+    pub fn eval(program: Program<Type>) -> Result<String, EvalError<Expression<Type>>> {
         //use pretty::{Arena, Pretty};
         //let allocator = Arena::<()>::new();
         //program.pretty(&allocator).render(80, &mut std::io::stdout())?;
-
         let mut backend = Self::object_file(Triple::host())?;
         let my_directory = tempfile::tempdir()?;
         let object_path = my_directory.path().join("object.o");
         let executable_path = my_directory.path().join("test_executable");
 
-        backend.compile_function("gogogo", program)?;
+        backend.compile_program(Name::new("gogogo", Location::manufactured()), program)?;
         let bytes = backend.bytes()?;
         std::fs::write(&object_path, bytes)?;
         Self::link(&object_path, &executable_path)?;
@@ -91,7 +92,7 @@ impl Backend<ObjectModule> {
     /// This function assumes that this compilation and linking should run without any
     /// output, so changes to the RTS should make 100% sure that they do not generate
     /// any compiler warnings.
-    fn link(object_file: &Path, executable_path: &Path) -> Result<(), EvalError> {
+    fn link(object_file: &Path, executable_path: &Path) -> Result<(), EvalError<Expression<Type>>> {
         use std::path::PathBuf;
 
         let output = std::process::Command::new("clang")
@@ -100,12 +101,13 @@ impl Backend<ObjectModule> {
                     .join("runtime")
                     .join("rts.c"),
             )
+            .arg("-Wl,-ld_classic")
             .arg(object_file)
             .arg("-o")
             .arg(executable_path)
             .output()?;
 
-        if !output.stderr.is_empty() {
+        if !output.status.success() {
             return Err(EvalError::Linker(
                 std::string::String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stderr).to_string(),
             ));
@@ -120,10 +122,20 @@ proptest::proptest! {
     // without error, assuming any possible input ... well, any possible input that
     // doesn't involve overflow or underflow.
     #[test]
-    fn static_backend(program in Program::arbitrary_with(GenerationEnvironment::new(false))) {
+    fn static_backend(program in Program::arbitrary()) {
         use crate::eval::PrimOpError;
+        //    use pretty::DocAllocator;
+        //    let allocator = pretty::Arena::new();
+        //    let result = allocator.text("-------------")
+        //                          .append(allocator.line())
+        //                          .append(program.pretty(&allocator))
+        //                          .append(allocator.line());
+        //    result.render_raw(70, &mut pretty::IoWrite::new(std::io::stdout()))
+        //      .expect("rendering works");
 
-        let basic_result = program.eval();
+
+        let ir_evaluator = crate::ir::Evaluator::default();
+        let basic_result = ir_evaluator.eval(program.clone()).map(|(_,o)| o);
 
         // windows `printf` is going to terminate lines with "\r\n", so we need to adjust
         // our test result here.
@@ -131,14 +143,13 @@ proptest::proptest! {
         let basic_result = basic_result.map(|x| x.replace('\n', "\r\n"));
 
         if !matches!(basic_result, Err(EvalError::PrimOp(PrimOpError::MathFailure(_)))) {
-//            use pretty::{DocAllocator, Pretty};
+            //use pretty::DocAllocator;
-//            let allocator = pretty::BoxAllocator;
+            //let allocator = pretty::Arena::new();
-//            allocator
+            //let result = allocator.text("-------------")
-//              .text("---------------")
+            //                      .append(allocator.line())
-//              .append(allocator.hardline())
             //                      .append(program.pretty(&allocator))
-//              .1
+            //                      .append(allocator.line());
-//              .render_colored(70, pretty::termcolor::StandardStream::stdout(pretty::termcolor::ColorChoice::Auto))
+            //result.render_raw(70, &mut pretty::IoWrite::new(std::io::stdout()))
             //  .expect("rendering works");
 
             let compiled_result = Backend::<ObjectModule>::eval(program);
@@ -150,7 +161,7 @@ proptest::proptest! {
     // without error, assuming any possible input ... well, any possible input that
     // doesn't involve overflow or underflow.
     #[test]
-    fn jit_backend(program in Program::arbitrary_with(GenerationEnvironment::new(false))) {
+    fn jit_backend(program in Program::arbitrary()) {
         use crate::eval::PrimOpError;
         //    use pretty::{DocAllocator, Pretty};
         //    let allocator = pretty::BoxAllocator;
@@ -162,8 +173,8 @@ proptest::proptest! {
         //      .render_colored(70, pretty::termcolor::StandardStream::stdout(pretty::termcolor::ColorChoice::Auto))
         //      .expect("rendering works");
 
-
+        let ir_evaluator = crate::ir::Evaluator::default();
-        let basic_result = program.eval();
+        let basic_result = ir_evaluator.eval(program.clone()).map(|(_,o)| o);
 
         if !matches!(basic_result, Err(EvalError::PrimOp(PrimOpError::MathFailure(_)))) {
             let compiled_result = Backend::<JITModule>::eval(program);

src/backend/runtime.rs

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ use cranelift_codegen::ir::{types, AbiParam, FuncRef, Function, Signature};
 use cranelift_codegen::isa::CallConv;
 use cranelift_jit::JITBuilder;
 use cranelift_module::{FuncId, Linkage, Module, ModuleResult};
+use std::alloc::Layout;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::ffi::CStr;
 use std::fmt::Write;
@@ -91,7 +92,19 @@ impl RuntimeFunctions {
     /// one; both to reduce the chance that they deviate, and to reduce overall
     /// maintenance burden.
     pub fn register_jit_implementations(builder: &mut JITBuilder) {
+        let allocation_pointer = unsafe {
+            std::alloc::alloc_zeroed(
+                Layout::from_size_align(1024 * 1024, 1024 * 1024)
+                    .expect("reasonable layout is reasonable"),
+            )
+        };
+        let allocation_pointer_pointer = unsafe {
+            let res = std::alloc::alloc(Layout::for_value(&allocation_pointer)) as *mut *mut u8;
+            *res = allocation_pointer;
+            res as *const u8
+        };
         builder.symbol("print", runtime_print as *const u8);
+        builder.symbol("__global_allocation_pointer__", allocation_pointer_pointer);
     }
 }
 
@@ -110,6 +123,7 @@ extern "C" fn runtime_print(
     let reconstituted = cstr.to_string_lossy();
 
     let output = match vtype_repr.try_into() {
+        Ok(ConstantType::Void) => format!("{} = <void>", reconstituted),
         Ok(ConstantType::I8) => format!("{} = {}i8", reconstituted, value as i8),
         Ok(ConstantType::I16) => format!("{} = {}i16", reconstituted, value as i16),
         Ok(ConstantType::I32) => format!("{} = {}i32", reconstituted, value as i32),
@@ -118,7 +132,7 @@ extern "C" fn runtime_print(
         Ok(ConstantType::U16) => format!("{} = {}u16", reconstituted, value as u16),
         Ok(ConstantType::U32) => format!("{} = {}u32", reconstituted, value as u32),
         Ok(ConstantType::U64) => format!("{} = {}u64", reconstituted, value as u64),
-        Err(_) => format!("{} = {}<unknown type>", reconstituted, value),
+        Err(_) => format!("{} = {}<unknown type {}>", reconstituted, value, vtype_repr),
     };
 
     if let Some(output_buffer) = unsafe { output_buffer.as_mut() } {

src/bin/gen-program.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+use ngr::syntax::ProgramGenerator;
+use ngr::util::pretty::Allocator;
+use proptest::strategy::{Strategy, ValueTree};
+use proptest::test_runner::{Config, TestRunner};
+
+fn main() -> Result<(), anyhow::Error> {
+    let generator = ProgramGenerator::default();
+    let runner_config = Config::default();
+    let mut runner = TestRunner::new(runner_config);
+    let program_tree = generator
+        .new_tree(&mut runner)
+        .map_err(|e| anyhow::anyhow!("Couldn't generate test program: {}", e))?;
+    let program = program_tree.current();
+    let allocator = Allocator::new();
+    let mut stdout = std::io::stdout();
+
+    for top_level in program.into_iter() {
+        let docbuilder = top_level.pretty(&allocator);
+        docbuilder.render(78, &mut stdout)?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}

src/bin/ngrc.rs

@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ struct CommandLineArguments {
 }
 
 fn main() {
+    tracing_subscriber::fmt::init();
     let args = CommandLineArguments::parse();
     let mut compiler = ngr::Compiler::default();
 

src/bin/ngri.rs

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ use rustyline::error::ReadlineError;
 use rustyline::DefaultEditor;
 
 fn main() -> Result<(), BackendError> {
+    tracing_subscriber::fmt::init();
     let mut editor = DefaultEditor::new().expect("rustyline works");
     let mut line_no = 0;
     let mut state = ngr::REPL::default();
@@ -19,7 +20,7 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), BackendError> {
 
             // it's not clear to me what this could be, but OK
             Err(ReadlineError::Io(e)) => {
-                eprintln!("IO error: {}", e);
+                tracing::error!(error = %e, "IO error");
                 break;
             }
 
@@ -31,7 +32,7 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), BackendError> {
             // what would cause this, but ...
             #[cfg(not(windows))]
             Err(ReadlineError::Errno(e)) => {
-                eprintln!("Unknown syscall error: {}", e);
+                tracing::error!(error = %e, "Unknown syscall.");
                 break;
             }
 
@@ -41,7 +42,7 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), BackendError> {
 
             // Why on earth are there so many error types?
             Err(e) => {
-                eprintln!("Unknown internal error: {}", e);
+                tracing::error!(error = %e, "Unknown internal error");
                 break;
             }
         }

src/bin/ngrun.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+use clap::Parser;
+use codespan_reporting::files::SimpleFiles;
+use ngr::backend::Backend;
+use ngr::eval::Value;
+use ngr::syntax::{self, Location, Name};
+use ngr::type_infer::TypeInferenceResult;
+use pretty::termcolor::StandardStream;
+use tracing_subscriber::prelude::*;
+
+#[derive(Parser, Debug)]
+#[clap(author, version, about, long_about = None)]
+struct CommandLineArguments {
+    /// Which interpreter to use: syntax, ir, or jit
+    #[arg(value_enum)]
+    interpreter: Interpreter,
+
+    /// The file to parse
+    file: String,
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::upper_case_acronyms)]
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, clap::ValueEnum)]
+enum Interpreter {
+    /// Run the syntax-level interpreter
+    Syntax,
+    /// Run the IR-level interpreter
+    IR,
+    /// Run the JIT backend
+    JIT,
+}
+
+fn print_result<E>(result: (Value<E>, String)) {
+    println!("{}", result.1);
+    println!("RESULT: {}", result.0);
+}
+
+fn jit(ir: ngr::ir::Program<ngr::ir::Type>) -> Result<fn(), ngr::backend::BackendError> {
+    let mut backend = Backend::jit(None)?;
+    let function_id = backend.compile_program(Name::new("gogogo", Location::manufactured()), ir)?;
+    backend.module.finalize_definitions()?;
+    let compiled_bytes = backend.bytes(function_id);
+    Ok(unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, fn() -> ()>(compiled_bytes) })
+}
+
+fn main() {
+    tracing_subscriber::registry()
+        .with(tracing_subscriber::fmt::layer())
+        .with(tracing_subscriber::EnvFilter::from_default_env())
+        .init();
+    let cli = CommandLineArguments::parse();
+    let mut file_database = SimpleFiles::new();
+    let mut console = StandardStream::stdout(pretty::termcolor::ColorChoice::Auto);
+    let console_options = codespan_reporting::term::Config::default();
+    let syntax = syntax::parse_file(&mut file_database, cli.file.as_ref());
+    let mut emit = |x| {
+        let _ = codespan_reporting::term::emit(&mut console, &console_options, &file_database, &x);
+    };
+
+    let syntax = match syntax {
+        Ok(x) => x,
+        Err(e) => {
+            emit((&e).into());
+            return;
+        }
+    };
+
+    let mut validation_result = syntax::Program::validate(syntax);
+    for item in validation_result.diagnostics() {
+        emit(item);
+    }
+    if validation_result.is_err() {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let syntax = validation_result
+        .into_result()
+        .expect("we already checked this");
+    if cli.interpreter == Interpreter::Syntax {
+        match syntax.eval() {
+            Err(e) => tracing::error!(error = %e, "Evaluation error"),
+            Ok(v) => print_result(v),
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+
+    let ir = match syntax.type_infer() {
+        TypeInferenceResult::Success { result, warnings } => {
+            for warning in warnings {
+                emit(warning.into());
+            }
+            result
+        }
+        TypeInferenceResult::Failure { errors, warnings } => {
+            for warning in warnings {
+                emit(warning.into());
+            }
+            for error in errors {
+                emit(error.into());
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+    };
+
+    if cli.interpreter == Interpreter::IR {
+        let evaluator = ngr::ir::Evaluator::default();
+        match evaluator.eval(ir) {
+            Err(e) => tracing::error!(error = %e, "Evaluation error"),
+            Ok(v) => print_result(v),
+        }
+        return;
+    }
+
+    match jit(ir) {
+        Err(e) => emit(e.into()),
+        Ok(compiled_function) => compiled_function(),
+    }
+}

src/compiler.rs

@@ -1,10 +1,12 @@
-use crate::syntax::Program as Syntax;
+use crate::backend::Backend;
-use crate::{backend::Backend, type_infer::TypeInferenceResult};
+use crate::syntax::{Location, Name, Program as Syntax};
+use crate::type_infer::TypeInferenceResult;
 use codespan_reporting::{
     diagnostic::Diagnostic,
     files::SimpleFiles,
     term::{self, Config},
 };
+use cranelift_module::Module;
 use pretty::termcolor::{ColorChoice, StandardStream};
 use target_lexicon::Triple;
 
@@ -75,29 +77,23 @@ impl Compiler {
     fn compile_internal(&mut self, input_file: &str) -> Result<Option<Vec<u8>>, CompilerError> {
         // Try to parse the file into our syntax AST. If we fail, emit the error
         // and then immediately return `None`.
-        let syntax = Syntax::parse_file(&mut self.file_database, input_file)?;
+        let raw_syntax = crate::syntax::parse_file(&mut self.file_database, input_file)?;
 
         // Now validate the user's syntax AST. This can possibly find errors and/or
         // create warnings. We can continue if we only get warnings, but need to stop
         // if we get any errors.
-        let (mut errors, mut warnings) = syntax.validate();
+        let mut validation_result = Syntax::validate(raw_syntax);
-        let stop = !errors.is_empty();
-        let messages = errors
-            .drain(..)
-            .map(Into::into)
-            .chain(warnings.drain(..).map(Into::into));
-
         // emit all the messages we receive; warnings *and* errors
-        for message in messages {
+        for message in validation_result.diagnostics() {
             self.emit(message);
         }
 
         // we got errors, so just stop right now. perhaps oddly, this is Ok(None);
         // we've already said all we're going to say in the messags above, so there's
         // no need to provide another `Err` result.
-        if stop {
+        let Some(syntax) = validation_result.into_result() else {
             return Ok(None);
-        }
+        };
 
         // Now that we've validated it, let's do type inference, potentially turning
         // into IR while we're at it.
@@ -134,7 +130,15 @@ impl Compiler {
 
         // Finally, send all this to Cranelift for conversion into an object file.
         let mut backend = Backend::object_file(Triple::host())?;
-        backend.compile_function("gogogo", ir)?;
+        let unknown = "<unknown>".to_string();
+        backend.compile_program(Name::new("gogogo", Location::manufactured()), ir)?;
+
+        for (_, decl) in backend.module.declarations().get_functions() {
+            tracing::debug!(name = %decl.name.as_ref().unwrap_or(&unknown), linkage = ?decl.linkage, "function definition");
+        }
+        for (_, decl) in backend.module.declarations().get_data_objects() {
+            tracing::debug!(name = %decl.name.as_ref().unwrap_or(&unknown), linkage = ?decl.linkage, "data definition");
+        }
         Ok(Some(backend.bytes()?))
     }
 

src/eval.rs

@@ -33,19 +33,21 @@
 //!     because the implementation of some parts of these primitives is really
 //!     awful to look at.
 //!     
-mod env;
+//mod env;
 mod primop;
 mod primtype;
 mod value;
 
+use crate::syntax::Name;
 use cranelift_module::ModuleError;
-pub use env::{EvalEnvironment, LookupError};
 pub use primop::PrimOpError;
 pub use primtype::PrimitiveType;
 pub use value::Value;
 
 use crate::backend::BackendError;
 
+use self::primtype::UnknownPrimType;
+
 /// All of the errors that can happen trying to evaluate an NGR program.
 ///
 /// This is yet another standard [`thiserror::Error`] type, but with the
@@ -54,11 +56,9 @@ use crate::backend::BackendError;
 /// of converting those errors to strings and then seeing if they're the
 /// same.
 #[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)]
-pub enum EvalError {
+pub enum EvalError<IR> {
     #[error(transparent)]
-    Lookup(#[from] LookupError),
+    PrimOp(#[from] PrimOpError<IR>),
-    #[error(transparent)]
-    PrimOp(#[from] PrimOpError),
     #[error(transparent)]
     Backend(#[from] BackendError),
     #[error("IO error: {0}")]
@@ -71,16 +71,29 @@ pub enum EvalError {
     ExitCode(std::process::ExitStatus),
     #[error("Unexpected output at runtime: {0}")]
     RuntimeOutput(String),
+    #[error("Cannot cast to function type: {0}")]
+    CastToFunction(String),
+    #[error(transparent)]
+    UnknownPrimType(#[from] UnknownPrimType),
+    #[error("Variable lookup failed for {1} at {0:?}")]
+    LookupFailed(crate::syntax::Location, String),
+    #[error("Attempted to call something that wasn't a function at {0:?} (it was a {1})")]
+    NotAFunction(crate::syntax::Location, Value<IR>),
+    #[error("Wrong argument call for function ({1:?}) at {0:?}; expected {2}, saw {3}")]
+    WrongArgCount(crate::syntax::Location, Option<Name>, usize, usize),
+    #[error("Value has no fields {1} (attempt to get field {2} at {0:?})")]
+    NoFieldForValue(crate::syntax::Location, Value<IR>, Name),
+    #[error("Bad field {2} for structure {1:?} at {0:?}")]
+    BadFieldForStructure(crate::syntax::Location, Option<Name>, Name),
 }
 
-impl PartialEq for EvalError {
+impl<IR1: Clone, IR2: Clone> PartialEq<EvalError<IR1>> for EvalError<IR2> {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &EvalError<IR1>) -> bool {
         match self {
-            EvalError::Lookup(a) => match other {
+            EvalError::LookupFailed(a, b) => match other {
-                EvalError::Lookup(b) => a == b,
+                EvalError::LookupFailed(x, y) => a == x && b == y,
                 _ => false,
             },
-
             EvalError::PrimOp(a) => match other {
                 EvalError::PrimOp(b) => a == b,
                 _ => false,
@@ -115,6 +128,36 @@ impl PartialEq for EvalError {
                 EvalError::RuntimeOutput(b) => a == b,
                 _ => false,
             },
+
+            EvalError::CastToFunction(a) => match other {
+                EvalError::CastToFunction(b) => a == b,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            EvalError::UnknownPrimType(a) => match other {
+                EvalError::UnknownPrimType(b) => a == b,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            EvalError::NotAFunction(a, b) => match other {
+                EvalError::NotAFunction(x, y) => a == x && b == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            EvalError::WrongArgCount(a, b, c, d) => match other {
+                EvalError::WrongArgCount(w, x, y, z) => a == w && b == x && c == y && d == z,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            EvalError::NoFieldForValue(a, b, c) => match other {
+                EvalError::NoFieldForValue(x, y, z) => a == x && b == y && c == z,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            EvalError::BadFieldForStructure(a, b, c) => match other {
+                EvalError::BadFieldForStructure(x, y, z) => a == x && b == y && c == z,
+                _ => false,
+            },
         }
     }
 }

src/eval/primop.rs

@@ -1,20 +1,22 @@
 use crate::eval::primtype::PrimitiveType;
 use crate::eval::value::Value;
 
+use super::primtype::{UnknownPrimType, ValuePrimitiveTypeError};
+
 /// Errors that can occur running primitive operations in the evaluators.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, thiserror::Error)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, thiserror::Error)]
-pub enum PrimOpError {
+pub enum PrimOpError<IR> {
     #[error("Math error (underflow or overflow) computing {0} operator")]
     MathFailure(&'static str),
     /// This particular variant covers the case in which a primitive
     /// operator takes two arguments that are supposed to be the same,
     /// but they differ. (So, like, all the math operators.)
     #[error("Type mismatch ({1} vs {2}) computing {0} operator")]
-    TypeMismatch(String, Value, Value),
+    TypeMismatch(String, Value<IR>, Value<IR>),
     /// This variant covers when an operator must take a particular
     /// type, but the user has provided a different one.
     #[error("Bad type for operator {0}: {1}")]
-    BadTypeFor(&'static str, Value),
+    BadTypeFor(String, Value<IR>),
     /// Probably obvious from the name, but just to be very clear: this
     /// happens when you pass three arguments to a two argument operator,
     /// etc. Technically that's a type error of some sort, but we split
@@ -28,8 +30,35 @@ pub enum PrimOpError {
         from: PrimitiveType,
         to: PrimitiveType,
     },
-    #[error("Unknown primitive type {0}")]
+    #[error(transparent)]
-    UnknownPrimType(String),
+    UnknownPrimType(#[from] UnknownPrimType),
+    #[error(transparent)]
+    ValuePrimitiveTypeError(#[from] ValuePrimitiveTypeError),
+}
+
+impl<IR1: Clone, IR2: Clone> PartialEq<PrimOpError<IR2>> for PrimOpError<IR1> {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &PrimOpError<IR2>) -> bool {
+        match (self, other) {
+            (PrimOpError::MathFailure(a), PrimOpError::MathFailure(b)) => a == b,
+            (PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(a, b, c), PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(x, y, z)) => {
+                a == x && b.strip() == y.strip() && c.strip() == z.strip()
+            }
+            (PrimOpError::BadTypeFor(a, b), PrimOpError::BadTypeFor(x, y)) => {
+                a == x && b.strip() == y.strip()
+            }
+            (PrimOpError::BadArgCount(a, b), PrimOpError::BadArgCount(x, y)) => a == x && b == y,
+            (PrimOpError::UnknownPrimOp(a), PrimOpError::UnknownPrimOp(x)) => a == x,
+            (
+                PrimOpError::UnsafeCast { from: a, to: b },
+                PrimOpError::UnsafeCast { from: x, to: y },
+            ) => a == x && b == y,
+            (PrimOpError::UnknownPrimType(a), PrimOpError::UnknownPrimType(x)) => a == x,
+            (PrimOpError::ValuePrimitiveTypeError(a), PrimOpError::ValuePrimitiveTypeError(x)) => {
+                a == x
+            }
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 // Implementing primitives in an interpreter like this is *super* tedious,
@@ -55,24 +84,29 @@ macro_rules! run_op {
     };
 }
 
-impl Value {
+impl<IR: Clone> Value<IR> {
-    fn unary_op(operation: &str, value: &Value) -> Result<Value, PrimOpError> {
+    fn unary_op(operation: &str, value: &Value<IR>) -> Result<Value<IR>, PrimOpError<IR>> {
         match operation {
-            "-" => match value {
+            "negate" => match value {
                 Value::I8(x) => Ok(Value::I8(x.wrapping_neg())),
                 Value::I16(x) => Ok(Value::I16(x.wrapping_neg())),
                 Value::I32(x) => Ok(Value::I32(x.wrapping_neg())),
                 Value::I64(x) => Ok(Value::I64(x.wrapping_neg())),
-                _ => Err(PrimOpError::BadTypeFor("-", value.clone())),
+                _ => Err(PrimOpError::BadTypeFor("-".to_string(), value.clone())),
             },
             _ => Err(PrimOpError::BadArgCount(operation.to_owned(), 1)),
         }
     }
 
-    fn binary_op(operation: &str, left: &Value, right: &Value) -> Result<Value, PrimOpError> {
+    fn binary_op(
+        operation: &str,
+        left: &Value<IR>,
+        right: &Value<IR>,
+    ) -> Result<Value<IR>, PrimOpError<IR>> {
         match left {
             Value::I8(x) => match right {
                 Value::I8(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as i8),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -81,6 +115,7 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::I16(x) => match right {
                 Value::I16(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as i16),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -89,6 +124,7 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::I32(x) => match right {
                 Value::I32(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as i32),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -97,6 +133,7 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::I64(x) => match right {
                 Value::I64(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as i64),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -105,6 +142,7 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::U8(x) => match right {
                 Value::U8(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as u8),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -113,6 +151,7 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::U16(x) => match right {
                 Value::U16(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as u16),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -121,6 +160,7 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::U32(x) => match right {
                 Value::U32(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y as u32),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
@@ -129,12 +169,33 @@ impl Value {
             },
             Value::U64(x) => match right {
                 Value::U64(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
                 _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
                     operation.to_string(),
                     left.clone(),
                     right.clone(),
                 )),
             },
+            Value::Number(x) => match right {
+                Value::Number(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::U8(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as u8), *y),
+                Value::U16(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as u16), *y),
+                Value::U32(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as u32), *y),
+                Value::U64(y) => run_op!(operation, x, *y),
+                Value::I8(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as i8), *y),
+                Value::I16(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as i16), *y),
+                Value::I32(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as i32), *y),
+                Value::I64(y) => run_op!(operation, (*x as i64), *y),
+                _ => Err(PrimOpError::TypeMismatch(
+                    operation.to_string(),
+                    left.clone(),
+                    right.clone(),
+                )),
+            },
+            Value::Closure(_, _, _, _)
+            | Value::Structure(_, _)
+            | Value::Primitive(_)
+            | Value::Void => Err(PrimOpError::BadTypeFor(operation.to_string(), left.clone())),
         }
     }
 
@@ -146,7 +207,10 @@ impl Value {
     /// implementation catches and raises an error on overflow or underflow, so
     /// its worth being careful to make sure that your inputs won't cause either
     /// condition.
-    pub fn calculate(operation: &str, values: Vec<Value>) -> Result<Value, PrimOpError> {
+    pub fn calculate(
+        operation: &str,
+        values: Vec<Value<IR>>,
+    ) -> Result<Value<IR>, PrimOpError<IR>> {
         match values.len() {
             1 => Value::unary_op(operation, &values[0]),
             2 => Value::binary_op(operation, &values[0], &values[1]),

src/eval/primtype.rs

@@ -2,10 +2,12 @@ use crate::{
     eval::{PrimOpError, Value},
     syntax::ConstantType,
 };
+use pretty::{Arena, DocAllocator, DocBuilder};
 use std::{fmt::Display, str::FromStr};
 
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Eq, Hash, PartialEq)]
 pub enum PrimitiveType {
+    Void,
     U8,
     U16,
     U32,
@@ -16,32 +18,68 @@ pub enum PrimitiveType {
     I64,
 }
 
-impl Display for PrimitiveType {
+impl PrimitiveType {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Arena<'a, ()>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Arena<'a, ()>> {
         match self {
-            PrimitiveType::I8 => write!(f, "i8"),
+            PrimitiveType::Void => allocator.text("void"),
-            PrimitiveType::I16 => write!(f, "i16"),
+            PrimitiveType::I8 => allocator.text("i8"),
-            PrimitiveType::I32 => write!(f, "i32"),
+            PrimitiveType::I16 => allocator.text("i16"),
-            PrimitiveType::I64 => write!(f, "i64"),
+            PrimitiveType::I32 => allocator.text("i32"),
-            PrimitiveType::U8 => write!(f, "u8"),
+            PrimitiveType::I64 => allocator.text("i64"),
-            PrimitiveType::U16 => write!(f, "u16"),
+            PrimitiveType::U8 => allocator.text("u8"),
-            PrimitiveType::U32 => write!(f, "u32"),
+            PrimitiveType::U16 => allocator.text("u16"),
-            PrimitiveType::U64 => write!(f, "u64"),
+            PrimitiveType::U32 => allocator.text("u32"),
+            PrimitiveType::U64 => allocator.text("u64"),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl<'a> From<&'a Value> for PrimitiveType {
+impl Display for PrimitiveType {
-    fn from(value: &Value) -> Self {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        let arena = Arena::new();
+        let doc = self.pretty(&arena);
+        doc.render_fmt(72, f)
+    }
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::enum_variant_names)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, thiserror::Error)]
+pub enum ValuePrimitiveTypeError {
+    #[error("Could not convert function value to primitive type (possible function name: {0:?}")]
+    CannotConvertFunction(Option<String>),
+    #[error("Could not convert structure value to primitive type (possible function name: {0:?}")]
+    CannotConvertStructure(Option<String>),
+    #[error(
+        "Could not convert primitive operator to primitive type (possible function name: {0:?}"
+    )]
+    CannotConvertPrimitive(String),
+}
+
+impl<'a, IR> TryFrom<&'a Value<IR>> for PrimitiveType {
+    type Error = ValuePrimitiveTypeError;
+
+    fn try_from(value: &'a Value<IR>) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
         match value {
-            Value::I8(_) => PrimitiveType::I8,
+            Value::Void => Ok(PrimitiveType::Void),
-            Value::I16(_) => PrimitiveType::I16,
+            Value::I8(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::I8),
-            Value::I32(_) => PrimitiveType::I32,
+            Value::I16(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::I16),
-            Value::I64(_) => PrimitiveType::I64,
+            Value::I32(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::I32),
-            Value::U8(_) => PrimitiveType::U8,
+            Value::I64(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::I64),
-            Value::U16(_) => PrimitiveType::U16,
+            Value::U8(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::U8),
-            Value::U32(_) => PrimitiveType::U32,
+            Value::U16(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::U16),
-            Value::U64(_) => PrimitiveType::U64,
+            Value::U32(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::U32),
+            Value::U64(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::U64),
+            // not sure this is the right call
+            Value::Number(_) => Ok(PrimitiveType::U64),
+            Value::Closure(name, _, _, _) => Err(ValuePrimitiveTypeError::CannotConvertFunction(
+                name.as_ref().map(|x| x.current_name().to_string()),
+            )),
+            Value::Structure(name, _) => Err(ValuePrimitiveTypeError::CannotConvertStructure(
+                name.as_ref().map(|x| x.current_name().to_string()),
+            )),
+            Value::Primitive(prim) => Err(ValuePrimitiveTypeError::CannotConvertPrimitive(
+                prim.clone(),
+            )),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -49,6 +87,7 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a Value> for PrimitiveType {
 impl From<ConstantType> for PrimitiveType {
     fn from(value: ConstantType) -> Self {
         match value {
+            ConstantType::Void => PrimitiveType::Void,
             ConstantType::I8 => PrimitiveType::I8,
             ConstantType::I16 => PrimitiveType::I16,
             ConstantType::I32 => PrimitiveType::I32,
@@ -61,8 +100,30 @@ impl From<ConstantType> for PrimitiveType {
     }
 }
 
+impl From<PrimitiveType> for ConstantType {
+    fn from(value: PrimitiveType) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            PrimitiveType::Void => ConstantType::Void,
+            PrimitiveType::I8 => ConstantType::I8,
+            PrimitiveType::I16 => ConstantType::I16,
+            PrimitiveType::I32 => ConstantType::I32,
+            PrimitiveType::I64 => ConstantType::I64,
+            PrimitiveType::U8 => ConstantType::U8,
+            PrimitiveType::U16 => ConstantType::U16,
+            PrimitiveType::U32 => ConstantType::U32,
+            PrimitiveType::U64 => ConstantType::U64,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(thiserror::Error, Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum UnknownPrimType {
+    #[error("Could not convert '{0}' into a primitive type")]
+    UnknownPrimType(String),
+}
+
 impl FromStr for PrimitiveType {
-    type Err = PrimOpError;
+    type Err = UnknownPrimType;
 
     fn from_str(s: &str) -> Result<Self, Self::Err> {
         match s {
@@ -74,49 +135,50 @@ impl FromStr for PrimitiveType {
             "u16" => Ok(PrimitiveType::U16),
             "u32" => Ok(PrimitiveType::U32),
             "u64" => Ok(PrimitiveType::U64),
-            _ => Err(PrimOpError::UnknownPrimType(s.to_string())),
+            "void" => Ok(PrimitiveType::Void),
+            _ => Err(UnknownPrimType::UnknownPrimType(s.to_owned())),
         }
     }
 }
 
 impl PrimitiveType {
+    /// Return the set of types that this type can be safely cast to
+    pub fn allowed_casts(&self) -> &'static [PrimitiveType] {
+        match self {
+            PrimitiveType::Void => &[PrimitiveType::Void],
+            PrimitiveType::U8 => &[
+                PrimitiveType::U8,
+                PrimitiveType::U16,
+                PrimitiveType::U32,
+                PrimitiveType::U64,
+                PrimitiveType::I16,
+                PrimitiveType::I32,
+                PrimitiveType::I64,
+            ],
+            PrimitiveType::U16 => &[
+                PrimitiveType::U16,
+                PrimitiveType::U32,
+                PrimitiveType::U64,
+                PrimitiveType::I32,
+                PrimitiveType::I64,
+            ],
+            PrimitiveType::U32 => &[PrimitiveType::U32, PrimitiveType::U64, PrimitiveType::I64],
+            PrimitiveType::U64 => &[PrimitiveType::U64],
+            PrimitiveType::I8 => &[
+                PrimitiveType::I8,
+                PrimitiveType::I16,
+                PrimitiveType::I32,
+                PrimitiveType::I64,
+            ],
+            PrimitiveType::I16 => &[PrimitiveType::I16, PrimitiveType::I32, PrimitiveType::I64],
+            PrimitiveType::I32 => &[PrimitiveType::I32, PrimitiveType::I64],
+            PrimitiveType::I64 => &[PrimitiveType::I64],
+        }
+    }
+
     /// Return true if this type can be safely cast into the target type.
     pub fn can_cast_to(&self, target: &PrimitiveType) -> bool {
-        match self {
+        self.allowed_casts().contains(target)
-            PrimitiveType::U8 => matches!(
-                target,
-                PrimitiveType::U8
-                    | PrimitiveType::U16
-                    | PrimitiveType::U32
-                    | PrimitiveType::U64
-                    | PrimitiveType::I16
-                    | PrimitiveType::I32
-                    | PrimitiveType::I64
-            ),
-            PrimitiveType::U16 => matches!(
-                target,
-                PrimitiveType::U16
-                    | PrimitiveType::U32
-                    | PrimitiveType::U64
-                    | PrimitiveType::I32
-                    | PrimitiveType::I64
-            ),
-            PrimitiveType::U32 => matches!(
-                target,
-                PrimitiveType::U32 | PrimitiveType::U64 | PrimitiveType::I64
-            ),
-            PrimitiveType::U64 => target == &PrimitiveType::U64,
-            PrimitiveType::I8 => matches!(
-                target,
-                PrimitiveType::I8 | PrimitiveType::I16 | PrimitiveType::I32 | PrimitiveType::I64
-            ),
-            PrimitiveType::I16 => matches!(
-                target,
-                PrimitiveType::I16 | PrimitiveType::I32 | PrimitiveType::I64
-            ),
-            PrimitiveType::I32 => matches!(target, PrimitiveType::I32 | PrimitiveType::I64),
-            PrimitiveType::I64 => target == &PrimitiveType::I64,
-        }
     }
 
     /// Try to cast the given value to this type, returning the new value.
@@ -127,7 +189,7 @@ impl PrimitiveType {
     /// type to the target type. (So, for example, "1i64" is a number that could
     /// work as a "u64", but since negative numbers wouldn't work, a cast from
     /// "1i64" to "u64" will fail.)
-    pub fn safe_cast(&self, source: &Value) -> Result<Value, PrimOpError> {
+    pub fn safe_cast<IR>(&self, source: &Value<IR>) -> Result<Value<IR>, PrimOpError<IR>> {
         match (self, source) {
             (PrimitiveType::U8, Value::U8(x)) => Ok(Value::U8(*x)),
             (PrimitiveType::U16, Value::U8(x)) => Ok(Value::U16(*x as u16)),
@@ -151,23 +213,45 @@ impl PrimitiveType {
             (PrimitiveType::I64, Value::I32(x)) => Ok(Value::I64(*x as i64)),
             (PrimitiveType::I64, Value::I64(x)) => Ok(Value::I64(*x)),
 
+            (PrimitiveType::I16, Value::U8(x)) => Ok(Value::I16(*x as i16)),
+            (PrimitiveType::I32, Value::U8(x)) => Ok(Value::I32(*x as i32)),
+            (PrimitiveType::I64, Value::U8(x)) => Ok(Value::I64(*x as i64)),
+            (PrimitiveType::I32, Value::U16(x)) => Ok(Value::I32(*x as i32)),
+            (PrimitiveType::I64, Value::U16(x)) => Ok(Value::I64(*x as i64)),
+            (PrimitiveType::I64, Value::U32(x)) => Ok(Value::I64(*x as i64)),
+
+            (PrimitiveType::Void, Value::Void) => Ok(Value::Void),
+
             _ => Err(PrimOpError::UnsafeCast {
-                from: source.into(),
+                from: PrimitiveType::try_from(source)?,
                 to: *self,
             }),
         }
     }
 
-    pub fn max_value(&self) -> u64 {
+    pub fn max_value(&self) -> Option<u64> {
         match self {
-            PrimitiveType::U8 => u8::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::Void => None,
-            PrimitiveType::U16 => u16::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::U8 => Some(u8::MAX as u64),
-            PrimitiveType::U32 => u32::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::U16 => Some(u16::MAX as u64),
-            PrimitiveType::U64 => u64::MAX,
+            PrimitiveType::U32 => Some(u32::MAX as u64),
-            PrimitiveType::I8 => i8::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::U64 => Some(u64::MAX),
-            PrimitiveType::I16 => i16::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::I8 => Some(i8::MAX as u64),
-            PrimitiveType::I32 => i32::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::I16 => Some(i16::MAX as u64),
-            PrimitiveType::I64 => i64::MAX as u64,
+            PrimitiveType::I32 => Some(i32::MAX as u64),
+            PrimitiveType::I64 => Some(i64::MAX as u64),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn valid_operators(&self) -> &'static [(&'static str, usize)] {
+        match self {
+            PrimitiveType::Void => &[],
+            PrimitiveType::U8 | PrimitiveType::U16 | PrimitiveType::U32 | PrimitiveType::U64 => {
+                &[("+", 2), ("-", 2), ("*", 2), ("/", 2)]
+            }
+            PrimitiveType::I8 | PrimitiveType::I16 | PrimitiveType::I32 | PrimitiveType::I64 => {
+                &[("+", 2), ("negate", 1), ("-", 2), ("*", 2), ("/", 2)]
+            }
         }
     }
 }

src/eval/value.rs

@@ -1,12 +1,16 @@
-use std::fmt::Display;
+use crate::syntax::Name;
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt;
 
 /// Values in the interpreter.
 ///
 /// Yes, this is yet another definition of a structure called `Value`, which
 /// are almost entirely identical. However, it's nice to have them separated
 /// by type so that we don't mix them up.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+#[derive(Clone)]
-pub enum Value {
+pub enum Value<IR> {
+    Void,
     I8(i8),
     I16(i16),
     I32(i32),
@@ -15,11 +19,51 @@ pub enum Value {
     U16(u16),
     U32(u32),
     U64(u64),
+    // a number of unknown type
+    Number(u64),
+    Closure(Option<Name>, ScopedMap<Name, Value<IR>>, Vec<Name>, IR),
+    Structure(Option<Name>, HashMap<Name, Value<IR>>),
+    Primitive(String),
 }
 
-impl Display for Value {
+impl<IR: Clone> Value<IR> {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+    /// Given a Value associated with some expression type, just strip out
+    /// the expressions and replace them with unit.
+    ///
+    /// Doing this transformation will likely make this value useless for
+    /// computation, but is very useful in allowing equivalence checks.
+    pub fn strip(&self) -> Value<()> {
         match self {
+            Value::Void => Value::Void,
+            Value::U8(x) => Value::U8(*x),
+            Value::U16(x) => Value::U16(*x),
+            Value::U32(x) => Value::U32(*x),
+            Value::U64(x) => Value::U64(*x),
+            Value::I8(x) => Value::I8(*x),
+            Value::I16(x) => Value::I16(*x),
+            Value::I32(x) => Value::I32(*x),
+            Value::I64(x) => Value::I64(*x),
+            Value::Number(x) => Value::Number(*x),
+            Value::Closure(name, env, args, _) => {
+                let new_env = env.clone().map_values(|x| x.strip());
+                Value::Closure(name.clone(), new_env, args.clone(), ())
+            }
+            Value::Structure(name, fields) => Value::Structure(
+                name.clone(),
+                fields.iter().map(|(n, v)| (n.clone(), v.strip())).collect(),
+            ),
+            Value::Primitive(name) => Value::Primitive(name.clone()),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn primitive<S: ToString>(name: S) -> Self {
+        Value::Primitive(name.to_string())
+    }
+}
+
+fn format_value<IR>(value: &Value<IR>, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+    match value {
+        Value::Void => write!(f, "<void>"),
         Value::I8(x) => write!(f, "{}i8", x),
         Value::I16(x) => write!(f, "{}i16", x),
         Value::I32(x) => write!(f, "{}i32", x),
@@ -28,53 +72,149 @@ impl Display for Value {
         Value::U16(x) => write!(f, "{}u16", x),
         Value::U32(x) => write!(f, "{}u32", x),
         Value::U64(x) => write!(f, "{}u64", x),
+        Value::Number(x) => write!(f, "{}", x),
+        Value::Closure(Some(name), _, _, _) => write!(f, "<function {}>", name),
+        Value::Closure(None, _, _, _) => write!(f, "<function>"),
+        Value::Structure(on, fields) => {
+            if let Some(n) = on {
+                write!(f, "{}", n.current_name())?;
+            }
+            write!(f, "{{")?;
+            for (n, v) in fields.iter() {
+                write!(f, " {}: {},", n, v)?;
+            }
+            write!(f, " }}")
+        }
+        Value::Primitive(n) => write!(f, "{}", n),
+    }
+}
+
+impl<IR> fmt::Debug for Value<IR> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        format_value(self, f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<IR> fmt::Display for Value<IR> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        format_value(self, f)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<IR1, IR2> PartialEq<Value<IR2>> for Value<IR1> {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Value<IR2>) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Value::Void => matches!(other, Value::Void),
+            Value::I8(x) => match other {
+                Value::I8(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::I16(x) => match other {
+                Value::I16(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::I32(x) => match other {
+                Value::I32(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::I64(x) => match other {
+                Value::I64(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::U8(x) => match other {
+                Value::U8(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::U16(x) => match other {
+                Value::U16(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::U32(x) => match other {
+                Value::U32(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::U64(x) => match other {
+                Value::U64(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::Number(x) => match other {
+                Value::I8(y) => (*x as i8) == *y,
+                Value::I16(y) => (*x as i16) == *y,
+                Value::I32(y) => (*x as i32) == *y,
+                Value::I64(y) => (*x as i64) == *y,
+                Value::U8(y) => (*x as u8) == *y,
+                Value::U16(y) => (*x as u16) == *y,
+                Value::U32(y) => (*x as u32) == *y,
+                Value::U64(y) => x == y,
+                Value::Number(y) => x == y,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::Closure(_, _, _, _) => false,
+            Value::Structure(on1, fields1) => match other {
+                Value::Structure(on2, fields2) => {
+                    on1 == on2 && {
+                        let left = fields1.keys().all(|x| fields2.contains_key(x));
+                        let right = fields2.keys().all(|x| fields1.contains_key(x));
+
+                        left && right
+                            && fields1
+                                .iter()
+                                .all(|(k, v)| fields2.get(k).map(|v2| v == v2).unwrap_or(false))
+                    }
+                }
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Value::Primitive(n1) => match other {
+                Value::Primitive(n2) => n1 == n2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl From<i8> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<i8> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: i8) -> Self {
         Value::I8(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<i16> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<i16> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: i16) -> Self {
         Value::I16(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<i32> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<i32> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: i32) -> Self {
         Value::I32(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<i64> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<i64> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: i64) -> Self {
         Value::I64(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<u8> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<u8> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: u8) -> Self {
         Value::U8(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<u16> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<u16> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: u16) -> Self {
         Value::U16(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<u32> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<u32> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: u32) -> Self {
         Value::U32(value)
     }
 }
 
-impl From<u64> for Value {
+impl<IR> From<u64> for Value<IR> {
     fn from(value: u64) -> Self {
         Value::U64(value)
     }

src/ir.rs

@@ -12,8 +12,13 @@
 //! validating syntax, and then figuring out how to turn it into Cranelift
 //! and object code. After that point, however, this will be the module to
 //! come to for analysis and optimization work.
+mod arbitrary;
 pub mod ast;
 mod eval;
+mod fields;
+mod pretty;
 mod strings;
+mod top_level;
 
 pub use ast::*;
+pub use eval::Evaluator;

src/ir/arbitrary.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,466 @@
+use crate::eval::PrimitiveType;
+use crate::ir::{Expression, Name, Primitive, Program, Type, TypeWithVoid, Value, ValueOrRef};
+use crate::syntax::Location;
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
+use proptest::strategy::{NewTree, Strategy, ValueTree};
+use proptest::test_runner::{TestRng, TestRunner};
+use rand::distributions::{Distribution, WeightedIndex};
+use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
+use rand::Rng;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::str::FromStr;
+
+lazy_static::lazy_static! {
+    static ref PROGRAM_LENGTH_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new([
+        0, // % chance of 0
+        10, // % chance of 1
+        10, // % chance of 2
+        15, // % chance of 3
+        10, // % chance of 4
+        10, // % chance of 5
+        10, // % chance of 6
+        5, // % chance of 7
+        5, // % chance of 8
+        5, // % chance of 9
+        5, // % chance of 10
+        5, // % chance of 11
+        3, // % chance of 12
+        3, // % chance of 13
+        3, // % chance of 14
+        1, // % chance of 15
+    ]).unwrap();
+
+    static ref BLOCK_LENGTH_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new([
+        1, // % chance of 0
+        10, // % chance of 1
+        20, // % chance of 2
+        15, // % chance of 3
+        10, // % chance of 4
+        8, // % chance of 5
+        8, // % chance of 6
+        5, // % chance of 7
+        5, // % chance of 8
+        4, // % chance of 9
+        3, // % chance of 10
+        3, // % chance of 11
+        3, // % chance of 12
+        2, // % chance of 13
+        2, // % chance of 14
+        1, // % chance of 15
+    ]).unwrap();
+
+    static ref FUNCTION_ARGUMENTS_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new([
+        5, // % chance of 0
+        20, // % chance of 1
+        20, // % chance of 2
+        20, // % chance of 3
+        15, // % chance of 4
+        10, // % chance of 5
+        5, // % chance of 6
+        2, // % chance of 7
+        1, // % chance of 8
+        1, // % chance of 9
+        1, // % chance of 10
+    ]).unwrap();
+
+    static ref STATEMENT_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new(
+        STATEMENT_TYPE_FREQUENCIES.iter().map(|x| x.1)
+    ).unwrap();
+
+    static ref EXPRESSION_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new(
+        EXPRESSION_TYPE_FREQUENCIES.iter().map(|x| x.1)
+    ).unwrap();
+
+    static ref ARGUMENT_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new(
+        ARGUMENT_TYPE_FREQUENCIES.iter().map(|x| x.1)
+    ).unwrap();
+
+    static ref VALUE_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION: WeightedIndex<usize> = WeightedIndex::new(
+        VALUE_TYPE_FREQUENCIES.iter().map(|x| x.1)
+    ).unwrap();
+}
+
+static STATEMENT_TYPE_FREQUENCIES: &[(StatementType, usize)] = &[
+    (StatementType::Binding, 3),
+    (StatementType::Function, 1),
+    (StatementType::Expression, 2),
+];
+
+static EXPRESSION_TYPE_FREQUENCIES: &[(ExpressionType, usize)] = &[
+    (ExpressionType::Atomic, 50),
+    (ExpressionType::Cast, 5),
+    (ExpressionType::Primitive, 5),
+    (ExpressionType::Block, 10),
+    (ExpressionType::Print, 10),
+    (ExpressionType::Bind, 20),
+];
+
+static ARGUMENT_TYPE_FREQUENCIES: &[(Type, usize)] = &[
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32), 1),
+    (Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64), 1),
+];
+
+enum StatementType {
+    Binding,
+    Function,
+    Expression,
+}
+
+enum ExpressionType {
+    Atomic,
+    Cast,
+    Primitive,
+    Block,
+    Print,
+    Bind,
+}
+
+// this knowingly excludes void
+static VALUE_TYPE_FREQUENCIES: &[(ValueType, usize)] = &[
+    (ValueType::I8, 1),
+    (ValueType::I16, 1),
+    (ValueType::I32, 1),
+    (ValueType::I64, 1),
+    (ValueType::U8, 1),
+    (ValueType::U16, 1),
+    (ValueType::U32, 1),
+    (ValueType::U64, 1),
+];
+
+#[derive(Copy, Clone)]
+enum ValueType {
+    I8,
+    I16,
+    I32,
+    I64,
+    U8,
+    U16,
+    U32,
+    U64,
+    Void,
+}
+
+impl From<PrimitiveType> for ValueType {
+    fn from(value: PrimitiveType) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            PrimitiveType::U8 => ValueType::U8,
+            PrimitiveType::U16 => ValueType::U16,
+            PrimitiveType::U32 => ValueType::U32,
+            PrimitiveType::U64 => ValueType::U64,
+            PrimitiveType::I8 => ValueType::I8,
+            PrimitiveType::I16 => ValueType::I16,
+            PrimitiveType::I32 => ValueType::I32,
+            PrimitiveType::I64 => ValueType::I64,
+            PrimitiveType::Void => ValueType::Void,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Default)]
+pub struct ProgramGenerator {}
+
+impl Strategy for ProgramGenerator {
+    type Tree = ProgramTree;
+    type Value = Program<Type>;
+
+    fn new_tree(&self, runner: &mut TestRunner) -> NewTree<Self> {
+        NewTree::<ProgramGenerator>::Ok(ProgramTree::new(runner.new_rng()))
+    }
+}
+
+pub struct ProgramTree {
+    _rng: TestRng,
+    current: Program<Type>,
+}
+
+impl ProgramTree {
+    fn new(_rng: TestRng) -> Self {
+        //      let mut items = vec![];
+        //let program_length = PROGRAM_LENGTH_DISTRIBUTION.sample(&mut rng);
+        //       let mut env = ScopedMap::new();
+
+        //        for _ in 0..program_length {
+        //            match STATEMENT_TYPE_FREQUENCIES[STATEMENT_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION.sample(&mut rng)].0 {
+        //                StatementType::Binding => {
+        //                    let binding = generate_random_binding(&mut rng, &mut env);
+        //                    items.push(TopLevel::Statement(binding));
+        //                }
+        //                StatementType::Expression => {
+        //                    let expr = generate_random_expression(&mut rng, &mut env);
+        //                    items.push(TopLevel::Statement(expr));
+        //                }
+        //                StatementType::Function => {
+        //                    env.new_scope();
+        //                    let name = generate_random_name(&mut rng);
+        //                    let mut args = vec![];
+        //                    let arg_count = FUNCTION_ARGUMENTS_DISTRIBUTION.sample(&mut rng);
+        //                    for _ in 0..arg_count {
+        //                        let name = generate_random_name(&mut rng);
+        //                        let ty = generate_random_argument_type(&mut rng);
+        //                        args.push((name, ty));
+        //                    }
+        //                    let body = generate_random_expression(&mut rng, &mut env);
+        //                    let rettype = body.type_of();
+        //                    env.release_scope();
+        //                    items.push(TopLevel::Function(name, args, rettype, body))
+        //                }
+        //            }
+        //        }
+
+        let current = Program {
+            functions: HashMap::new(),
+            type_definitions: HashMap::new(),
+            body: Expression::Block(Location::manufactured(), Type::void(), vec![]),
+        };
+
+        ProgramTree { _rng, current }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ValueTree for ProgramTree {
+    type Value = Program<Type>;
+
+    fn current(&self) -> Self::Value {
+        self.current.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn simplify(&mut self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn complicate(&mut self) -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct ExpressionGenerator {}
+
+impl Strategy for ExpressionGenerator {
+    type Tree = ExpressionTree;
+    type Value = Expression<Type>;
+
+    fn new_tree(&self, runner: &mut TestRunner) -> NewTree<Self> {
+        NewTree::<ExpressionGenerator>::Ok(ExpressionTree::new(runner.new_rng()))
+    }
+}
+
+struct ExpressionTree {
+    _rng: TestRng,
+    current: Expression<Type>,
+}
+
+impl ValueTree for ExpressionTree {
+    type Value = Expression<Type>;
+
+    fn current(&self) -> Self::Value {
+        self.current.clone()
+    }
+
+    fn simplify(&mut self) -> bool {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+
+    fn complicate(&mut self) -> bool {
+        unimplemented!()
+    }
+}
+
+impl ExpressionTree {
+    fn new(mut rng: TestRng) -> Self {
+        let mut env = ScopedMap::new();
+        let current = generate_random_expression(&mut rng, &mut env);
+
+        ExpressionTree { _rng: rng, current }
+    }
+}
+
+fn generate_random_expression(
+    rng: &mut TestRng,
+    env: &mut ScopedMap<Name, Type>,
+) -> Expression<Type> {
+    match EXPRESSION_TYPE_FREQUENCIES[EXPRESSION_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION.sample(rng)].0 {
+        ExpressionType::Atomic => Expression::Atomic(generate_random_valueref(rng, env, None)),
+
+        ExpressionType::Bind => generate_random_binding(rng, env),
+
+        ExpressionType::Block => {
+            let num_stmts = BLOCK_LENGTH_DISTRIBUTION.sample(rng);
+            let mut stmts = Vec::new();
+
+            if num_stmts == 0 {
+                return Expression::Block(Location::manufactured(), Type::void(), stmts);
+            }
+
+            env.new_scope();
+            for _ in 1..num_stmts {
+                let mut next = generate_random_expression(rng, env);
+                let next_type = next.type_of();
+                if !next_type.is_void() {
+                    let name = generate_random_name(rng);
+                    env.insert(name.clone(), next_type.clone());
+                    next =
+                        Expression::Bind(Location::manufactured(), name, next_type, Box::new(next));
+                }
+                stmts.push(next);
+            }
+            let last_expr = generate_random_expression(rng, env);
+            let last_type = last_expr.type_of();
+            stmts.push(last_expr);
+            env.release_scope();
+
+            Expression::Block(Location::manufactured(), last_type, stmts)
+        }
+
+        ExpressionType::Cast => {
+            let inner = generate_random_valueref(rng, env, None);
+
+            match inner.type_of() {
+                // nevermind
+                Type::Function(_, _) => Expression::Atomic(inner),
+                Type::Primitive(primty) => {
+                    let to_type = primty
+                        .allowed_casts()
+                        .choose(rng)
+                        .expect("actually chose type");
+                    Expression::Cast(Location::manufactured(), Type::Primitive(*to_type), inner)
+                }
+                Type::Structure(_) => unimplemented!(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        ExpressionType::Primitive => {
+            let base_expr = generate_random_valueref(rng, env, None);
+            let out_type = base_expr.type_of();
+
+            match out_type {
+                Type::Function(_, _) => Expression::Atomic(base_expr),
+                Type::Primitive(primty) => match primty.valid_operators().choose(rng) {
+                    None => Expression::Atomic(base_expr),
+                    Some((operator, arg_count)) => {
+                        let primop = Primitive::from_str(operator).expect("chose valid primitive");
+                        let mut args = vec![base_expr];
+                        let mut argtys = vec![];
+
+                        while args.len() < *arg_count {
+                            args.push(generate_random_valueref(rng, env, Some(primty)));
+                            argtys.push(Type::Primitive(primty));
+                        }
+
+                        let primtype = Type::Function(argtys, Box::new(Type::Primitive(primty)));
+
+                        Expression::Call(
+                            Location::manufactured(),
+                            out_type,
+                            ValueOrRef::Primitive(Location::manufactured(), primtype, primop),
+                            args,
+                        )
+                    }
+                },
+                Type::Structure(_) => unimplemented!(),
+            }
+        }
+
+        ExpressionType::Print => {
+            let possible_variables = env
+                .bindings()
+                .iter()
+                .filter_map(|(variable, ty)| {
+                    if ty.is_printable() {
+                        Some((variable.clone(), ty.clone()))
+                    } else {
+                        None
+                    }
+                })
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+            if possible_variables.is_empty() {
+                generate_random_binding(rng, env)
+            } else {
+                let (variable, var_type) = possible_variables.choose(rng).unwrap();
+
+                Expression::Call(
+                    Location::manufactured(),
+                    Type::void(),
+                    ValueOrRef::Primitive(Location::manufactured(), Type::void(), Primitive::Print),
+                    vec![ValueOrRef::Ref(
+                        Location::manufactured(),
+                        var_type.clone(),
+                        variable.clone(),
+                    )],
+                )
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn generate_random_binding(rng: &mut TestRng, env: &mut ScopedMap<Name, Type>) -> Expression<Type> {
+    let name = generate_random_name(rng);
+    let expr = generate_random_expression(rng, env);
+    let ty = expr.type_of();
+    env.insert(name.clone(), ty.clone());
+    Expression::Bind(Location::manufactured(), name, ty, Box::new(expr))
+}
+
+fn generate_random_valueref(
+    rng: &mut TestRng,
+    env: &mut ScopedMap<Name, Type>,
+    target_type: Option<PrimitiveType>,
+) -> ValueOrRef<Type> {
+    let mut bindings = env.bindings();
+
+    bindings.retain(|_, value| {
+        target_type
+            .map(|x| value == &Type::Primitive(x))
+            .unwrap_or(true)
+    });
+
+    if rng.gen() || bindings.is_empty() {
+        let value_type = if let Some(target_type) = target_type {
+            ValueType::from(target_type)
+        } else {
+            VALUE_TYPE_FREQUENCIES[VALUE_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION.sample(rng)].0
+        };
+
+        // generate a constant
+        let val = match value_type {
+            ValueType::I8 => Value::I8(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::I16 => Value::I16(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::I32 => Value::I32(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::I64 => Value::I64(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::U8 => Value::U8(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::U16 => Value::U16(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::U32 => Value::U32(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::U64 => Value::U64(None, rng.gen()),
+            ValueType::Void => Value::Void,
+        };
+
+        ValueOrRef::Value(Location::manufactured(), val.type_of(), val)
+    } else {
+        // generate a reference
+        let weighted_keys = bindings.keys().map(|x| (1, x)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+        let distribution = WeightedIndex::new(weighted_keys.iter().map(|x| x.0)).unwrap();
+        let var = weighted_keys[distribution.sample(rng)].1.clone();
+        let ty = bindings
+            .remove(&var)
+            .expect("chose unbound variable somehow?");
+        ValueOrRef::Ref(Location::manufactured(), ty, var)
+    }
+}
+
+fn generate_random_name(rng: &mut TestRng) -> Name {
+    let start = rng.gen_range('a'..='z');
+    Name::gensym(start)
+}
+
+//fn generate_random_argument_type(rng: &mut TestRng) -> Type {
+//    ARGUMENT_TYPE_FREQUENCIES[ARGUMENT_TYPE_DISTRIBUTION.sample(rng)]
+//        .0
+//        .clone()
+//}

src/ir/ast.rs

@@ -1,108 +1,54 @@
-use crate::{
+use crate::eval::PrimitiveType;
-    eval::PrimitiveType,
+pub use crate::ir::fields::Fields;
-    syntax::{self, ConstantType, Location},
+pub use crate::syntax::Name;
-};
+use crate::syntax::{ConstantType, Location};
-use internment::ArcIntern;
+use proptest::arbitrary::Arbitrary;
-use pretty::{BoxAllocator, DocAllocator, Pretty};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
-use proptest::{
+use std::convert::TryFrom;
-    prelude::Arbitrary,
+use std::str::FromStr;
-    strategy::{BoxedStrategy, Strategy},
-};
-use std::{fmt, str::FromStr};
 
-/// We're going to represent variables as interned strings.
+use super::arbitrary::ProgramGenerator;
-///
-/// These should be fast enough for comparison that it's OK, since it's going to end up
-/// being pretty much the pointer to the string.
-type Variable = ArcIntern<String>;
 
 /// The representation of a program within our IR. For now, this is exactly one file.
 ///
-/// In addition, for the moment there's not really much of interest to hold here besides
+/// A program consists of a series of statements and functions. The statements should
-/// the list of statements read from the file. Order is important. In the future, you
+/// be executed in order. The functions currently may not reference any variables
-/// could imagine caching analysis information in this structure.
+/// at the top level, so their order only matters in relation to each other (functions
+/// may not be referenced before they are defined).
 ///
 /// `Program` implements both [`Pretty`] and [`Arbitrary`]. The former should be used
 /// to print the structure whenever possible, especially if you value your or your
 /// user's time. The latter is useful for testing that conversions of `Program` retain
 /// their meaning. All `Program`s generated through [`Arbitrary`] are guaranteed to be
 /// syntactically valid, although they may contain runtime issue like over- or underflow.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct Program {
-    // For now, a program is just a vector of statements. In the future, we'll probably
-    // extend this to include a bunch of other information, but for now: just a list.
-    pub(crate) statements: Vec<Statement>,
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Program
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        let mut result = allocator.nil();
-
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
-            // there's probably a better way to do this, rather than constantly
-            // adding to the end, but this works.
-            result = result
-                .append(stmt.pretty(allocator))
-                .append(allocator.text(";"))
-                .append(allocator.hardline());
-        }
-
-        result
-    }
-}
-
-impl Arbitrary for Program {
-    type Parameters = crate::syntax::arbitrary::GenerationEnvironment;
-    type Strategy = BoxedStrategy<Self>;
-
-    fn arbitrary_with(args: Self::Parameters) -> Self::Strategy {
-        crate::syntax::Program::arbitrary_with(args)
-            .prop_map(|x| {
-                x.type_infer()
-                    .expect("arbitrary_with should generate type-correct programs")
-            })
-            .boxed()
-    }
-}
-
-/// The representation of a statement in the language.
 ///
-/// For now, this is either a binding site (`x = 4`) or a print statement
+/// The type variable is, somewhat confusingly, the current definition of a type within
-/// (`print x`). Someday, though, more!
+/// the IR. Since the makeup of this structure may change over the life of the compiler,
-///
+/// it's easiest to just make it an argument.
-/// As with `Program`, this type implements [`Pretty`], which should
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-/// be used to display the structure whenever possible. It does not
+pub struct Program<Type> {
-/// implement [`Arbitrary`], though, mostly because it's slightly
+    // The set of functions declared in this program.
-/// complicated to do so.
+    pub functions: HashMap<Name, FunctionDefinition<Type>>,
-///
+    // The set of types declared in this program.
-#[derive(Debug)]
+    pub type_definitions: HashMap<Name, Type>,
-pub enum Statement {
+    // The thing to evaluate in the end.
-    Binding(Location, Variable, Type, Expression),
+    pub body: Expression<Type>,
-    Print(Location, Type, Variable),
 }
 
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Statement
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-where
+pub struct FunctionDefinition<Type> {
-    A: 'a,
+    pub name: Name,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
+    pub arguments: Vec<(Name, Type)>,
-{
+    pub return_type: Type,
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
+    pub body: Expression<Type>,
-        match self {
-            Statement::Binding(_, var, _, expr) => allocator
-                .text(var.as_ref().to_string())
-                .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(allocator.text("="))
-                .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(expr.pretty(allocator)),
-            Statement::Print(_, _, var) => allocator
-                .text("print")
-                .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(allocator.text(var.as_ref().to_string())),
 }
+
+impl Arbitrary for Program<Type> {
+    type Parameters = ();
+    type Strategy = ProgramGenerator;
+
+    fn arbitrary_with(_: Self::Parameters) -> Self::Strategy {
+        ProgramGenerator::default()
     }
 }
 
@@ -118,22 +64,29 @@ where
 /// a primitive), any subexpressions have been bound to variables so
 /// that the referenced data will always either be a constant or a
 /// variable reference.
-#[derive(Debug)]
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub enum Expression {
+pub enum Expression<Type> {
-    Atomic(ValueOrRef),
+    Atomic(ValueOrRef<Type>),
-    Cast(Location, Type, ValueOrRef),
+    Cast(Location, Type, ValueOrRef<Type>),
-    Primitive(Location, Type, Primitive, Vec<ValueOrRef>),
+    Construct(Location, Type, Name, HashMap<Name, ValueOrRef<Type>>),
+    FieldRef(Location, Type, Type, ValueOrRef<Type>, Name),
+    Block(Location, Type, Vec<Expression<Type>>),
+    Call(Location, Type, ValueOrRef<Type>, Vec<ValueOrRef<Type>>),
+    Bind(Location, Name, Type, Box<Expression<Type>>),
 }
 
-impl Expression {
+impl<Type: Clone + TypeWithVoid> Expression<Type> {
-    /// Return a reference to the type of the expression, as inferred or recently
+    /// Return the type of the expression, as inferred or recently
     /// computed.
-    pub fn type_of(&self) -> &Type {
+    pub fn type_of(&self) -> Type {
         match self {
-            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Ref(_, t, _)) => t,
+            Expression::Atomic(x) => x.type_of(),
-            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Value(_, t, _)) => t,
+            Expression::Cast(_, t, _) => t.clone(),
-            Expression::Cast(_, t, _) => t,
+            Expression::Construct(_, t, _, _) => t.clone(),
-            Expression::Primitive(_, t, _, _) => t,
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, t, _, _, _) => t.clone(),
+            Expression::Block(_, t, _) => t.clone(),
+            Expression::Call(_, t, _, _) => t.clone(),
+            Expression::Bind(_, _, t, _) => t.clone(),
         }
     }
 
@@ -142,41 +95,13 @@ impl Expression {
         match self {
             Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Ref(l, _, _)) => l,
             Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Value(l, _, _)) => l,
+            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Primitive(l, _, _)) => l,
             Expression::Cast(l, _, _) => l,
-            Expression::Primitive(l, _, _, _) => l,
+            Expression::Construct(l, _, _, _) => l,
-        }
+            Expression::FieldRef(l, _, _, _, _) => l,
-    }
+            Expression::Block(l, _, _) => l,
-}
+            Expression::Call(l, _, _, _) => l,
-
+            Expression::Bind(l, _, _, _) => l,
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Expression
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        match self {
-            Expression::Atomic(x) => x.pretty(allocator),
-            Expression::Cast(_, t, e) => allocator
-                .text("<")
-                .append(t.pretty(allocator))
-                .append(allocator.text(">"))
-                .append(e.pretty(allocator)),
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, exprs) if exprs.len() == 1 => {
-                op.pretty(allocator).append(exprs[0].pretty(allocator))
-            }
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, exprs) if exprs.len() == 2 => {
-                let left = exprs[0].pretty(allocator);
-                let right = exprs[1].pretty(allocator);
-
-                left.append(allocator.space())
-                    .append(op.pretty(allocator))
-                    .append(allocator.space())
-                    .append(right)
-                    .parens()
-            }
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, exprs) => {
-                allocator.text(format!("!!{:?} with {} arguments!!", op, exprs.len()))
-            }
         }
     }
 }
@@ -193,6 +118,8 @@ pub enum Primitive {
     Minus,
     Times,
     Divide,
+    Print,
+    Negate,
 }
 
 impl FromStr for Primitive {
@@ -204,58 +131,37 @@ impl FromStr for Primitive {
             "-" => Ok(Primitive::Minus),
             "*" => Ok(Primitive::Times),
             "/" => Ok(Primitive::Divide),
+            "print" => Ok(Primitive::Print),
+            "negate" => Ok(Primitive::Negate),
             _ => Err(format!("Illegal primitive {}", value)),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Primitive
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        match self {
-            Primitive::Plus => allocator.text("+"),
-            Primitive::Minus => allocator.text("-"),
-            Primitive::Times => allocator.text("*"),
-            Primitive::Divide => allocator.text("/"),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl fmt::Display for Primitive {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        <&Primitive as Pretty<'_, BoxAllocator, ()>>::pretty(self, &BoxAllocator).render_fmt(72, f)
-    }
-}
-
 /// An expression that is always either a value or a reference.
 ///
 /// This is the type used to guarantee that we don't nest expressions
 /// at this level. Instead, expressions that take arguments take one
 /// of these, which can only be a constant or a reference.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub enum ValueOrRef {
+pub enum ValueOrRef<Type> {
     Value(Location, Type, Value),
-    Ref(Location, Type, ArcIntern<String>),
+    Ref(Location, Type, Name),
+    Primitive(Location, Type, Primitive),
 }
 
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b ValueOrRef
+impl<Type: Clone> ValueOrRef<Type> {
-where
+    pub fn type_of(&self) -> Type {
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
         match self {
-            ValueOrRef::Value(_, _, v) => v.pretty(allocator),
+            ValueOrRef::Ref(_, t, _) => t.clone(),
-            ValueOrRef::Ref(_, _, v) => allocator.text(v.as_ref().to_string()),
+            ValueOrRef::Value(_, t, _) => t.clone(),
+            ValueOrRef::Primitive(_, t, _) => t.clone(),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl From<ValueOrRef> for Expression {
+impl<Type> From<ValueOrRef<Type>> for Expression<Type> {
-    fn from(value: ValueOrRef) -> Self {
+    fn from(value: ValueOrRef<Type>) -> Self {
         Expression::Atomic(value)
     }
 }
@@ -276,6 +182,7 @@ pub enum Value {
     U16(Option<u8>, u16),
     U32(Option<u8>, u32),
     U64(Option<u8>, u64),
+    Void,
 }
 
 impl Value {
@@ -290,49 +197,7 @@ impl Value {
             Value::U16(_, _) => Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16),
             Value::U32(_, _) => Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32),
             Value::U64(_, _) => Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64),
-        }
+            Value::Void => Type::void(),
-    }
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Value
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        let pretty_internal = |opt_base: &Option<u8>, x, t| {
-            syntax::Value::Number(*opt_base, Some(t), x).pretty(allocator)
-        };
-
-        let pretty_internal_signed = |opt_base, x: i64, t| {
-            let base = pretty_internal(opt_base, x.unsigned_abs(), t);
-
-            allocator.text("-").append(base)
-        };
-
-        match self {
-            Value::I8(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I8)
-            }
-            Value::I16(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I16)
-            }
-            Value::I32(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I32)
-            }
-            Value::I64(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value, ConstantType::I64)
-            }
-            Value::U8(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U8)
-            }
-            Value::U16(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U16)
-            }
-            Value::U32(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U32)
-            }
-            Value::U64(opt_base, value) => pretty_internal(opt_base, *value, ConstantType::U64),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -340,24 +205,254 @@ where
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
 pub enum Type {
     Primitive(PrimitiveType),
+    Function(Vec<Type>, Box<Type>),
+    Structure(Fields<Type>),
 }
 
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Type
+impl Type {
-where
+    /// Returns true if this variable can reasonably be passed to the print
-    A: 'a,
+    /// expression for printing.
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
+    pub fn is_printable(&self) -> bool {
-{
+        matches!(self, Type::Primitive(_))
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if the variable is signed.
+    pub fn is_signed(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(
+            self,
+            Type::Primitive(
+                PrimitiveType::I8 | PrimitiveType::I16 | PrimitiveType::I32 | PrimitiveType::I64
+            )
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<PrimitiveType> for Type {
+    fn from(value: PrimitiveType) -> Self {
+        Type::Primitive(value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> TryInto<ConstantType> for &'a Type {
+    type Error = ();
+
+    fn try_into(self) -> Result<ConstantType, Self::Error> {
         match self {
-            Type::Primitive(pt) => allocator.text(format!("{}", pt)),
+            Type::Primitive(pt) => Ok((*pt).into()),
+            Type::Function(_, _) => Err(()),
+            Type::Structure(_) => Err(()),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl fmt::Display for Type {
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+pub enum TypeOrVar {
+    Primitive(PrimitiveType),
+    Variable(Location, Name),
+    Function(Vec<TypeOrVar>, Box<TypeOrVar>),
+    Structure(Fields<TypeOrVar>),
+}
+
+impl Default for TypeOrVar {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        TypeOrVar::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl TypeOrVar {
+    /// Generate a fresh type variable that is different from all previous type variables.
+    ///
+    /// This type variable is guaranteed to be unique across the process lifetime. Overuse
+    /// of this function could potentially cause overflow problems, but you're going to have
+    /// to try really hard (like, 2^64 times) to make that happen. The location bound to
+    /// this address will be purely manufactured; if you want to specify a location, use
+    /// [`TypeOrVar::new_located`].
+    pub fn new() -> Self {
+        Self::new_located(Location::manufactured())
+    }
+
+    /// Generate a fresh type variable that is different from all previous type variables.
+    ///
+    /// This type variable is guaranteed to be unique across the process lifetime. Overuse
+    /// of this function could potentially cause overflow problems, but you're going to have
+    /// to try really hard (like, 2^64 times) to make that happen.
+    pub fn new_located(loc: Location) -> Self {
+        TypeOrVar::Variable(loc.clone(), Name::located_gensym(loc, "t"))
+    }
+
+    /// Try replacing the given type variable with the given type, returning true if anything
+    /// was changed.
+    pub fn replace(&mut self, name: &Name, replace_with: &TypeOrVar) -> bool {
         match self {
-            Type::Primitive(pt) => pt.fmt(f),
+            TypeOrVar::Variable(_, var_name) if name == var_name => {
+                *self = replace_with.clone();
+                true
+            }
+
+            TypeOrVar::Variable(_, _) => false,
+
+            TypeOrVar::Function(args, ret) => {
+                ret.replace(name, replace_with)
+                    | args.iter_mut().any(|x| x.replace(name, replace_with))
+            }
+
+            TypeOrVar::Primitive(_) => false,
+
+            TypeOrVar::Structure(fields) => {
+                fields.types_mut().any(|x| x.replace(name, replace_with))
             }
         }
     }
+
+    /// Returns whether or not this type is resolved (meaning that it contains no type
+    /// variables.)
+    pub fn is_resolved(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            TypeOrVar::Variable(_, _) => false,
+            TypeOrVar::Primitive(_) => true,
+            TypeOrVar::Function(args, ret) => {
+                args.iter().all(TypeOrVar::is_resolved) && ret.is_resolved()
+            }
+            TypeOrVar::Structure(fields) => fields.types().all(TypeOrVar::is_resolved),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq<Type> for TypeOrVar {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Type) -> bool {
+        match other {
+            Type::Function(a, b) => match self {
+                TypeOrVar::Function(x, y) => x == a && y.as_ref() == b.as_ref(),
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            Type::Primitive(a) => match self {
+                TypeOrVar::Primitive(x) => a == x,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+
+            Type::Structure(fields1) => match self {
+                TypeOrVar::Structure(fields2) => {
+                    fields1.count() == fields2.count()
+                        && fields1.iter().all(|(name, subtype)| {
+                            fields2.get(name).map(|x| x == subtype).unwrap_or(false)
+                        })
+                }
+                _ => false,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait TypeWithVoid {
+    fn void() -> Self;
+    fn is_void(&self) -> bool;
+}
+
+impl TypeWithVoid for Type {
+    fn void() -> Self {
+        Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void)
+    }
+
+    fn is_void(&self) -> bool {
+        self == &Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void)
+    }
+}
+
+impl TypeWithVoid for TypeOrVar {
+    fn void() -> Self {
+        TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void)
+    }
+
+    fn is_void(&self) -> bool {
+        self == &TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void)
+    }
+}
+
+pub trait TypeWithFunction: Sized {
+    fn build_function_type(arg_types: Vec<Self>, ret_type: Self) -> Self;
+}
+
+impl TypeWithFunction for Type {
+    fn build_function_type(arg_types: Vec<Self>, ret_type: Self) -> Self {
+        Type::Function(arg_types, Box::new(ret_type))
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: Into<Type>> From<T> for TypeOrVar {
+    fn from(value: T) -> Self {
+        match value.into() {
+            Type::Primitive(p) => TypeOrVar::Primitive(p),
+            Type::Function(args, ret) => TypeOrVar::Function(
+                args.into_iter().map(Into::into).collect(),
+                Box::new((*ret).into()),
+            ),
+            Type::Structure(fields) => TypeOrVar::Structure(fields.map(Into::into)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<TypeOrVar> for Type {
+    type Error = TypeOrVar;
+
+    fn try_from(value: TypeOrVar) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
+        match value {
+            TypeOrVar::Function(args, ret) => {
+                let converted_args = args
+                    .iter()
+                    .cloned()
+                    .map(Type::try_from)
+                    .collect::<Result<_, _>>();
+                let converted_ret = Type::try_from((*ret).clone());
+
+                if let Ok(args) = converted_args {
+                    if let Ok(ret) = converted_ret {
+                        return Ok(Type::Function(args, Box::new(ret)));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Err(TypeOrVar::Function(args, ret))
+            }
+
+            TypeOrVar::Primitive(t) => Ok(Type::Primitive(t)),
+
+            TypeOrVar::Structure(fields) => {
+                let mut new_fields = Fields::new(fields.ordering());
+                let mut errored = false;
+
+                for (name, field) in fields.iter() {
+                    if let Ok(new_field) = field.clone().try_into() {
+                        new_fields.insert(name.clone(), new_field);
+                    } else {
+                        errored = true;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if errored {
+                    return Err(TypeOrVar::Structure(fields));
+                }
+
+                Ok(Type::Structure(new_fields))
+            }
+
+            TypeOrVar::Variable(_, _) => Err(value),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn struct_sizes_are_rational() {
+    assert_eq!(8, std::mem::size_of::<Name>());
+    assert_eq!(24, std::mem::size_of::<Location>());
+    assert_eq!(1, std::mem::size_of::<Primitive>());
+    assert_eq!(1, std::mem::size_of::<PrimitiveType>());
+    assert_eq!(32, std::mem::size_of::<Fields<Type>>());
+    assert_eq!(40, std::mem::size_of::<Type>());
+    assert_eq!(40, std::mem::size_of::<TypeOrVar>());
+    assert_eq!(80, std::mem::size_of::<ValueOrRef<Type>>());
+    assert_eq!(80, std::mem::size_of::<ValueOrRef<TypeOrVar>>());
+    assert_eq!(200, std::mem::size_of::<Expression<Type>>());
+    assert_eq!(200, std::mem::size_of::<Expression<TypeOrVar>>());
+    assert_eq!(72, std::mem::size_of::<Program<Type>>());
+    assert_eq!(72, std::mem::size_of::<Program<TypeOrVar>>());
+}

src/ir/eval.rs

@@ -1,100 +1,208 @@
-use crate::eval::{EvalEnvironment, EvalError, Value};
+use super::{FunctionDefinition, Type, ValueOrRef};
-use crate::ir::{Expression, Program, Statement};
+use crate::eval::{EvalError, Value};
+use crate::ir::{Expression, Name, Program};
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt::Display;
 
-use super::{Primitive, Type, ValueOrRef};
+type IRValue<T> = Value<Expression<T>>;
+type IREvalError<T> = EvalError<Expression<T>>;
 
-impl Program {
+pub struct Evaluator<T> {
-    /// Evaluate the program, returning either an error or a string containing everything
+    env: ScopedMap<Name, IRValue<T>>,
-    /// the program printed out.
+    functions: HashMap<Name, FunctionDefinition<T>>,
+    stdout: String,
+}
+
+impl<T> Default for Evaluator<T> {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Evaluator {
+            env: ScopedMap::new(),
+            functions: HashMap::new(),
+            stdout: String::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> Evaluator<T>
+where
+    T: Clone + Into<Type>,
+    Expression<T>: Display,
+{
+    /// Evaluate the program, returning either an error or the result of the final
+    /// statement and the complete contents of the console output.
     ///
     /// The print outs will be newline separated, with one print out per line.
-    pub fn eval(&self) -> Result<String, EvalError> {
+    pub fn eval(mut self, program: Program<T>) -> Result<(IRValue<T>, String), IREvalError<T>> {
-        let mut env = EvalEnvironment::empty();
+        self.functions.extend(program.functions);
-        let mut stdout = String::new();
+        let retval = self.eval_expr(program.body)?;
-
+        Ok((retval, self.stdout))
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
-            match stmt {
-                Statement::Binding(_, name, _, value) => {
-                    let actual_value = value.eval(&env)?;
-                    env = env.extend(name.clone(), actual_value);
     }
 
-                Statement::Print(_, _, name) => {
+    /// Get the current output of the evaluated program.
-                    let value = env.lookup(name.clone())?;
+    pub fn stdout(self) -> String {
-                    let line = format!("{} = {}\n", name, value);
+        self.stdout
-                    stdout.push_str(&line);
-                }
-            }
     }
 
-        Ok(stdout)
+    fn eval_expr(&mut self, expr: Expression<T>) -> Result<IRValue<T>, IREvalError<T>> {
-    }
+        match expr {
-}
+            Expression::Atomic(x) => self.eval_atomic(x),
-
-impl Expression {
-    fn eval(&self, env: &EvalEnvironment) -> Result<Value, EvalError> {
-        match self {
-            Expression::Atomic(x) => x.eval(env),
 
             Expression::Cast(_, t, valref) => {
-                let value = valref.eval(env)?;
+                let value = self.eval_atomic(valref)?;
+                let ty = t.into();
 
-                match t {
+                match ty {
                     Type::Primitive(pt) => Ok(pt.safe_cast(&value)?),
+                    Type::Function(_, _) => Err(EvalError::CastToFunction(ty.to_string())),
+                    Type::Structure(_) => unimplemented!(),
                 }
             }
 
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, args) => {
+            Expression::Construct(_, _, name, fields) => {
-                let arg_values = args
+                let mut result_fields = HashMap::with_capacity(fields.len());
-                    .iter()
-                    .map(|x| x.eval(env))
-                    .collect::<Result<Vec<Value>, EvalError>>()?;
 
-                // and then finally we call `calculate` to run them. trust me, it's nice
+                for (name, subexpr) in fields.into_iter() {
-                // to not have to deal with all the nonsense hidden under `calculate`.
+                    result_fields.insert(name.clone(), self.eval_atomic(subexpr)?);
-                match op {
-                    Primitive::Plus => Ok(Value::calculate("+", arg_values)?),
-                    Primitive::Minus => Ok(Value::calculate("-", arg_values)?),
-                    Primitive::Times => Ok(Value::calculate("*", arg_values)?),
-                    Primitive::Divide => Ok(Value::calculate("/", arg_values)?),
-                }
-            }
-        }
-    }
                 }
 
-impl ValueOrRef {
+                Ok(Value::Structure(Some(name.clone()), result_fields))
-    fn eval(&self, env: &EvalEnvironment) -> Result<Value, EvalError> {
+            }
-        match self {
+
-            ValueOrRef::Value(_, _, v) => match v {
+            Expression::FieldRef(loc, _, _, valref, field) => match self.eval_atomic(valref)? {
-                super::Value::I8(_, v) => Ok(Value::I8(*v)),
+                Value::Structure(oname, mut fields) => match fields.remove(&field) {
-                super::Value::I16(_, v) => Ok(Value::I16(*v)),
+                    None => Err(EvalError::NoFieldForValue(
-                super::Value::I32(_, v) => Ok(Value::I32(*v)),
+                        loc.clone(),
-                super::Value::I64(_, v) => Ok(Value::I64(*v)),
+                        Value::Structure(oname, fields),
-                super::Value::U8(_, v) => Ok(Value::U8(*v)),
+                        field.clone(),
-                super::Value::U16(_, v) => Ok(Value::U16(*v)),
+                    )),
-                super::Value::U32(_, v) => Ok(Value::U32(*v)),
+                    Some(value) => Ok(value),
-                super::Value::U64(_, v) => Ok(Value::U64(*v)),
                 },
 
-            ValueOrRef::Ref(_, _, n) => Ok(env.lookup(n.clone())?),
+                x => Err(EvalError::NoFieldForValue(loc.clone(), x, field.clone())),
+            },
+
+            Expression::Block(_, _, stmts) => {
+                let mut result = Value::Void;
+
+                for stmt in stmts.into_iter() {
+                    result = self.eval_expr(stmt)?;
+                }
+
+                Ok(result)
+            }
+
+            Expression::Bind(_, name, _, value) => {
+                let value = self.eval_expr(*value)?;
+                self.env.insert(name.clone(), value.clone());
+                Ok(value)
+            }
+
+            Expression::Call(loc, _, fun, args) => {
+                let function = self.eval_atomic(fun)?;
+
+                match function {
+                    Value::Closure(name, mut closure_env, arguments, body) => {
+                        if args.len() != arguments.len() {
+                            return Err(EvalError::WrongArgCount(
+                                loc.clone(),
+                                name,
+                                arguments.len(),
+                                args.len(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+
+                        closure_env.new_scope();
+                        for (name, value) in arguments.into_iter().zip(args) {
+                            let value = self.eval_atomic(value)?;
+                            closure_env.insert(name, value);
+                        }
+
+                        let temp_ref = &mut closure_env;
+
+                        std::mem::swap(&mut self.env, temp_ref);
+                        let result = self.eval_expr(body);
+                        std::mem::swap(&mut self.env, temp_ref);
+                        closure_env.release_scope();
+                        result
+                    }
+
+                    Value::Primitive(name) if name == "print" => {
+                        if let [ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, ty, name)] = &args[..] {
+                            let value = self.eval_atomic(ValueOrRef::Ref(
+                                loc.clone(),
+                                ty.clone(),
+                                name.clone(),
+                            ))?;
+                            let addendum = format!("{} = {}\n", name, value);
+
+                            self.stdout.push_str(&addendum);
+                            Ok(Value::Void)
+                        } else {
+                            panic!("Non-reference/non-singleton argument to 'print'");
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    Value::Primitive(name) => {
+                        let values = args
+                            .into_iter()
+                            .map(|x| self.eval_atomic(x))
+                            .collect::<Result<_, _>>()?;
+                        Value::calculate(name.as_str(), values).map_err(Into::into)
+                    }
+
+                    _ => Err(EvalError::NotAFunction(loc.clone(), function)),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn eval_atomic(&self, value: ValueOrRef<T>) -> Result<IRValue<T>, IREvalError<T>> {
+        match value {
+            ValueOrRef::Value(_, _, v) => match v {
+                super::Value::I8(_, v) => Ok(Value::I8(v)),
+                super::Value::I16(_, v) => Ok(Value::I16(v)),
+                super::Value::I32(_, v) => Ok(Value::I32(v)),
+                super::Value::I64(_, v) => Ok(Value::I64(v)),
+                super::Value::U8(_, v) => Ok(Value::U8(v)),
+                super::Value::U16(_, v) => Ok(Value::U16(v)),
+                super::Value::U32(_, v) => Ok(Value::U32(v)),
+                super::Value::U64(_, v) => Ok(Value::U64(v)),
+                super::Value::Void => Ok(Value::Void),
+            },
+
+            ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, _, n) => self
+                .env
+                .get(&n)
+                .cloned()
+                .ok_or_else(|| EvalError::LookupFailed(loc.clone(), n.to_string())),
+
+            ValueOrRef::Primitive(_, _, prim) => Ok(Value::primitive(prim)),
         }
     }
 }
 
 #[test]
 fn two_plus_three() {
-    let input = crate::syntax::Program::parse(0, "x = 2 + 3; print x;").expect("parse works");
+    let input = crate::syntax::parse_string(0, "x = 2 + 3; print x;").expect("parse works");
-    let ir = input.type_infer().expect("test should be type-valid");
+    let program = crate::syntax::Program::validate(input)
-    let output = ir.eval().expect("runs successfully");
+        .into_result()
-    assert_eq!("x = 5u64\n", &output);
+        .unwrap();
+    let ir = program.type_infer().expect("test should be type-valid");
+    let evaluator = Evaluator::default();
+    let (_, result) = evaluator.eval(ir).expect("runs successfully");
+    assert_eq!("x = 5u64\n", &result);
 }
 
 #[test]
 fn lotsa_math() {
     let input =
-        crate::syntax::Program::parse(0, "x = 2 + 3 * 10 / 5 - 1; print x;").expect("parse works");
+        crate::syntax::parse_string(0, "x = 2 + 3 * 10 / 5 - 1; print x;").expect("parse works");
-    let ir = input.type_infer().expect("test should be type-valid");
+    let program = crate::syntax::Program::validate(input)
-    let output = ir.eval().expect("runs successfully");
+        .into_result()
-    assert_eq!("x = 7u64\n", &output);
+        .unwrap();
+    let ir = program.type_infer().expect("test should be type-valid");
+    let evaluator = Evaluator::default();
+    let (_, result) = evaluator.eval(ir).expect("runs successfully");
+    assert_eq!("x = 7u64\n", &result);
 }

src/ir/fields.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+use crate::syntax::Name;
+use cranelift_module::DataDescription;
+use std::fmt;
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct Fields<T> {
+    ordering: FieldOrdering,
+    total_size: usize,
+    fields: Vec<(Name, T)>,
+}
+
+impl<T: PartialEq> PartialEq for Fields<T> {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.ordering == other.ordering && self.fields == other.fields
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: Eq> Eq for Fields<T> {}
+
+impl<T: fmt::Debug> fmt::Debug for Fields<T> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "Fields:")?;
+        self.fields.fmt(f)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum FieldOrdering {
+    Standard,
+}
+
+impl<T> Default for Fields<T> {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::new(FieldOrdering::Standard)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> Fields<T> {
+    pub fn new(ordering: FieldOrdering) -> Fields<T> {
+        Fields {
+            ordering,
+            total_size: 0,
+            fields: vec![],
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn ordering(&self) -> FieldOrdering {
+        self.ordering
+    }
+
+    pub fn insert(&mut self, name: Name, t: T) {
+        self.total_size += 8;
+        self.fields.push((name, t));
+    }
+
+    pub fn get(&self, name: &Name) -> Option<&T> {
+        for (n, res) in self.fields.iter() {
+            if n == name {
+                return Some(res);
+            }
+        }
+
+        None
+    }
+
+    pub fn map<T2, F: Fn(T) -> T2>(self, f: F) -> Fields<T2> {
+        Fields {
+            ordering: self.ordering,
+            total_size: self.total_size,
+            fields: self.fields.into_iter().map(|(n, t)| (n, f(t))).collect(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn count(&self) -> usize {
+        self.fields.len()
+    }
+
+    pub fn has_field(&self, name: &Name) -> bool {
+        self.fields.iter().any(|(current, _)| current == name)
+    }
+
+    pub fn remove_field(&mut self, name: &Name) -> Option<T> {
+        let mut field_index = None;
+
+        for (idx, (current, _)) in self.fields.iter().enumerate() {
+            if current == name {
+                field_index = Some(idx);
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+
+        field_index.map(|i| self.fields.remove(i).1)
+    }
+
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = (&Name, &T)> {
+        self.fields.iter().map(|(x, y)| (x, y))
+    }
+
+    pub fn field_names(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &Name> {
+        self.fields.iter().map(|(n, _)| n)
+    }
+
+    pub fn types(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &T> {
+        self.fields.iter().map(|(_, x)| x)
+    }
+
+    pub fn types_mut(&mut self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &mut T> {
+        self.fields.iter_mut().map(|(_, x)| x)
+    }
+
+    pub fn blank_data(&mut self) -> DataDescription {
+        let mut cranelift_description = DataDescription::new();
+        cranelift_description.set_align(8);
+        cranelift_description.define_zeroinit(self.total_size);
+        cranelift_description
+    }
+
+    pub fn field_type_and_offset(&self, field: &Name) -> Option<(&T, i32)> {
+        let mut offset = 0;
+
+        for (current, ty) in self.fields.iter() {
+            if current == field {
+                return Some((ty, offset));
+            }
+
+            offset += 8;
+        }
+
+        None
+    }
+
+    pub fn object_size(&self) -> usize {
+        self.total_size
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T> IntoIterator for Fields<T> {
+    type Item = (Name, T);
+    type IntoIter = std::vec::IntoIter<Self::Item>;
+
+    fn into_iter(self) -> Self::IntoIter {
+        self.fields.into_iter()
+    }
+}

src/ir/pretty.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,248 @@
+use crate::ir::{Expression, Primitive, Program, Type, TypeOrVar, Value, ValueOrRef};
+use crate::syntax::{self, ConstantType};
+use crate::util::pretty::{derived_display, pretty_function_type, Allocator};
+use pretty::{Arena, DocAllocator, DocBuilder};
+
+impl Program<Type> {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        let mut result = allocator.nil();
+
+        for (name, ty) in self.type_definitions.iter() {
+            result = result
+                .append(allocator.text("type"))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text(name.current_name().to_string()))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text("="))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(ty.pretty(allocator))
+                .append(allocator.hardline());
+        }
+
+        if !self.type_definitions.is_empty() {
+            result = result.append(allocator.hardline());
+        }
+
+        for function in self.functions.values() {
+            result = result
+                .append(allocator.text("function"))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text(function.name.current_name().to_string()))
+                .append(allocator.text("("))
+                .append(allocator.intersperse(
+                    function.arguments.iter().map(|(x, t)| {
+                        allocator
+                            .text(x.original_name().to_string())
+                            .append(allocator.text(":"))
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(t.pretty(allocator))
+                    }),
+                    allocator.text(","),
+                ))
+                .append(allocator.text(")"))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text("->"))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(function.return_type.pretty(allocator))
+                .append(allocator.softline())
+                .append(function.body.pretty(allocator))
+                .append(allocator.hardline());
+        }
+
+        if !self.functions.is_empty() {
+            result = result.append(allocator.hardline());
+        }
+
+        result.append(self.body.pretty(allocator))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Expression<Type> {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(
+        &self,
+        allocator: &'a Arena<'a, ()>,
+    ) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, Arena<'a, ()>, ()> {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Atomic(x) => x.pretty(allocator),
+            Expression::Cast(_, t, e) => allocator
+                .text("<")
+                .append(t.pretty(allocator))
+                .append(allocator.text(">"))
+                .append(e.pretty(allocator)),
+            Expression::Construct(_, _, name, fields) => {
+                let inner = allocator
+                    .intersperse(
+                        fields.iter().map(|(k, v)| {
+                            allocator
+                                .text(k.to_string())
+                                .append(":")
+                                .append(allocator.space())
+                                .append(v.pretty(allocator))
+                                .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                        }),
+                        allocator.line(),
+                    )
+                    .indent(2)
+                    .braces();
+                allocator.text(name.to_string()).append(inner)
+            }
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, _, _, val, field) => val.pretty(allocator).append(
+                allocator
+                    .text(".")
+                    .append(allocator.text(field.to_string())),
+            ),
+            Expression::Call(_, _, fun, args) => {
+                let args = args.iter().map(|x| x.pretty(allocator));
+                let comma_sepped_args = allocator.intersperse(args, allocator.text(","));
+                fun.pretty(allocator).append(comma_sepped_args.parens())
+            }
+            Expression::Block(_, _, exprs) => match exprs.split_last() {
+                None => allocator.text("()"),
+                Some((last, &[])) => last.pretty(allocator),
+                Some((last, start)) => {
+                    let mut result = allocator.text("{").append(allocator.hardline());
+                    let starts = start.iter().map(|x| {
+                        x.pretty(allocator)
+                            .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                            .append(allocator.hardline())
+                            .indent(4)
+                    });
+                    let last = last
+                        .pretty(allocator)
+                        .append(allocator.hardline())
+                        .indent(4);
+
+                    for start in starts {
+                        result = result.append(start);
+                    }
+
+                    result.append(last).append(allocator.text("}"))
+                }
+            },
+            Expression::Bind(_, var, ty, expr) => allocator
+                .text(var.current_name().to_string())
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text(":"))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(ty.pretty(allocator))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text("="))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(expr.pretty(allocator)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Primitive {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            Primitive::Plus => allocator.text("+"),
+            Primitive::Minus => allocator.text("-"),
+            Primitive::Times => allocator.text("*"),
+            Primitive::Divide => allocator.text("/"),
+            Primitive::Print => allocator.text("print"),
+            Primitive::Negate => allocator.text("negate"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ValueOrRef<Type> {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            ValueOrRef::Value(_, _, v) => v.pretty(allocator),
+            ValueOrRef::Ref(_, _, v) => allocator.text(v.current_name().to_string()),
+            ValueOrRef::Primitive(_, _, p) => p.pretty(allocator),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Value {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        let pretty_internal = |opt_base: &Option<u8>, x, t| {
+            syntax::Value::Number(*opt_base, Some(t), x).pretty(allocator)
+        };
+
+        let pretty_internal_signed = |opt_base, x: i64, t| {
+            let base = pretty_internal(opt_base, x.unsigned_abs(), t);
+
+            allocator.text("-").append(base)
+        };
+
+        match self {
+            Value::I8(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I8)
+            }
+            Value::I16(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I16)
+            }
+            Value::I32(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I32)
+            }
+            Value::I64(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value, ConstantType::I64)
+            }
+            Value::U8(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U8)
+            }
+            Value::U16(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U16)
+            }
+            Value::U32(opt_base, value) => {
+                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U32)
+            }
+            Value::U64(opt_base, value) => pretty_internal(opt_base, *value, ConstantType::U64),
+            Value::Void => allocator.text("<void>"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Type {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            Type::Function(args, rettype) => pretty_function_type!(allocator, args, rettype),
+            Type::Primitive(prim) => prim.pretty(allocator),
+            Type::Structure(fields) => allocator.text("struct").append(
+                allocator
+                    .concat(fields.iter().map(|(n, t)| {
+                        allocator
+                            .text(n.to_string())
+                            .append(allocator.text(":"))
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(t.pretty(allocator))
+                            .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                    }))
+                    .braces(),
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl TypeOrVar {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            TypeOrVar::Function(args, rettype) => pretty_function_type!(allocator, args, rettype),
+            TypeOrVar::Primitive(prim) => prim.pretty(allocator),
+            TypeOrVar::Variable(_, name) => allocator.text(name.to_string()),
+            TypeOrVar::Structure(fields) => allocator.text("struct").append(
+                allocator
+                    .concat(fields.iter().map(|(n, t)| {
+                        allocator
+                            .text(n.to_string())
+                            .append(allocator.text(":"))
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(t.pretty(allocator))
+                            .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                    }))
+                    .braces(),
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+derived_display!(Program<Type>);
+derived_display!(Expression<Type>);
+derived_display!(Primitive);
+derived_display!(Type);
+derived_display!(TypeOrVar);
+derived_display!(ValueOrRef<Type>);
+derived_display!(Value);

src/ir/strings.rs

@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
-use super::ast::{Expression, Program, Statement};
+use super::ast::{Expression, Program};
 use internment::ArcIntern;
 use std::collections::HashSet;
 
-impl Program {
+impl<T> Program<T> {
     /// Get the complete list of strings used within the program.
     ///
     /// For the purposes of this function, strings are the variables used in
@@ -10,31 +10,17 @@ impl Program {
     pub fn strings(&self) -> HashSet<ArcIntern<String>> {
         let mut result = HashSet::new();
 
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
+        for function in self.functions.values() {
-            stmt.register_strings(&mut result);
+            function.body.register_strings(&mut result);
         }
 
         result
     }
 }
 
-impl Statement {
+impl<T> Expression<T> {
-    fn register_strings(&self, string_set: &mut HashSet<ArcIntern<String>>) {
-        match self {
-            Statement::Binding(_, name, _, expr) => {
-                string_set.insert(name.clone());
-                expr.register_strings(string_set);
-            }
-
-            Statement::Print(_, _, name) => {
-                string_set.insert(name.clone());
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl Expression {
     fn register_strings(&self, _string_set: &mut HashSet<ArcIntern<String>>) {
         // nothing has a string in here, at the moment
+        unimplemented!()
     }
 }

src/ir/top_level.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+use crate::ir::{Expression, Name, Program, TypeWithFunction, TypeWithVoid};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+impl<T: Clone + TypeWithVoid + TypeWithFunction> Program<T> {
+    /// Retrieve the complete set of variables that are defined at the top level of
+    /// this program.
+    pub fn get_top_level_variables(&self) -> HashMap<Name, T> {
+        self.body.get_top_level_variables()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: Clone> Expression<T> {
+    /// Retrieve the complete set of variables that are defined at the top level of
+    /// this expression. Basically, returns the variable named in bind.
+    pub fn get_top_level_variables(&self) -> HashMap<Name, T> {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Bind(_, name, ty, expr) => {
+                let mut tlvs = expr.get_top_level_variables();
+                tlvs.insert(name.clone(), ty.clone());
+                tlvs
+            }
+            _ => HashMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}

src/lib.rs

@@ -68,6 +68,7 @@ mod examples;
 pub mod ir;
 pub mod syntax;
 pub mod type_infer;
+pub mod util;
 
 /// Implementation module for the high-level compiler.
 mod compiler;

src/repl.rs

@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 use crate::backend::{Backend, BackendError};
-use crate::syntax::{ConstantType, Location, ParserError, Statement};
+use crate::syntax::{ConstantType, Expression, Location, Name, ParserError, Program, TopLevel};
 use crate::type_infer::TypeInferenceResult;
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
 use codespan_reporting::diagnostic::Diagnostic;
 use codespan_reporting::files::SimpleFiles;
 use codespan_reporting::term::{self, Config};
 use cranelift_jit::JITModule;
 use cranelift_module::ModuleError;
 use pretty::termcolor::{ColorChoice, StandardStream};
-use std::collections::HashMap;
 
 /// A high-level REPL helper for NGR.
 ///
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ use std::collections::HashMap;
 pub struct REPL {
     file_database: SimpleFiles<String, String>,
     jitter: Backend<JITModule>,
-    variable_binding_sites: HashMap<String, Location>,
+    variable_binding_sites: ScopedMap<String, Location>,
     console: StandardStream,
     console_config: Config,
 }
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ impl REPL {
         Ok(REPL {
             file_database: SimpleFiles::new(),
             jitter: Backend::jit(None)?,
-            variable_binding_sites: HashMap::new(),
+            variable_binding_sites: ScopedMap::new(),
             console,
             console_config,
         })
@@ -106,9 +106,9 @@ impl REPL {
     pub fn process_input(&mut self, line_no: usize, command: String) {
         if let Err(err) = self.process(line_no, command) {
             if let Err(e) = self.emit_diagnostic(Diagnostic::from(err)) {
-                eprintln!(
+                tracing::error!(
-                    "WOAH! System having trouble printing error messages. This is very bad. ({})",
+                    error = %e,
-                    e
+                    "WOAH! System having trouble printing error messages. This is very bad.",
                 );
             }
         }
@@ -127,48 +127,43 @@ impl REPL {
             .get(entry)
             .expect("entry exists")
             .source();
-        let syntax = Statement::parse(entry, source)?;
+        let syntax = TopLevel::parse(entry, source)?;
-
+        let top_levels = match syntax {
-        let program = match syntax {
+            TopLevel::Expression(Expression::Binding(loc, name, expr)) => {
-            Statement::Binding(loc, name, expr) => {
                 // if this is a variable binding, and we've never defined this variable before,
                 // we should tell cranelift about it. this is optimistic; if we fail to compile,
                 // then we won't use this definition until someone tries again.
-                if !self.variable_binding_sites.contains_key(&name.name) {
+                if !self
-                    self.jitter.define_string(&name.name)?;
+                    .variable_binding_sites
+                    .contains_key(&name.current_name().to_string())
+                {
+                    self.jitter.define_string(name.current_name())?;
                     self.jitter
-                        .define_variable(name.to_string(), ConstantType::U64)?;
+                        .define_variable(name.clone(), ConstantType::U64)?;
                 }
 
-                crate::syntax::Program {
+                vec![
-                    statements: vec![
+                    TopLevel::Expression(Expression::Binding(loc.clone(), name.clone(), expr)),
-                        Statement::Binding(loc.clone(), name.clone(), expr),
+                    TopLevel::Expression(Expression::Call(
-                        Statement::Print(loc, name),
+                        loc.clone(),
-                    ],
+                        Box::new(Expression::Primitive(
-                }
+                            loc.clone(),
+                            crate::syntax::Name::manufactured("print"),
+                        )),
+                        vec![Expression::Reference(name.clone())],
+                    )),
+                ]
             }
 
-            nonbinding => crate::syntax::Program {
+            x => vec![x],
-                statements: vec![nonbinding],
-            },
         };
-
+        let mut validation_result =
-        let (mut errors, mut warnings) =
+            Program::validate_with_bindings(top_levels, &mut self.variable_binding_sites);
-            program.validate_with_bindings(&mut self.variable_binding_sites);
+        for message in validation_result.diagnostics() {
-        let stop = !errors.is_empty();
-        let messages = errors
-            .drain(..)
-            .map(Into::into)
-            .chain(warnings.drain(..).map(Into::into));
-
-        for message in messages {
             self.emit_diagnostic(message)?;
         }
 
-        if stop {
+        if let Some(program) = validation_result.into_result() {
-            return Ok(());
-        }
-
             match program.type_infer() {
                 TypeInferenceResult::Failure {
                     mut errors,
@@ -182,8 +177,6 @@ impl REPL {
                     for message in messages {
                         self.emit_diagnostic(message)?;
                     }
-
-                Ok(())
                 }
 
                 TypeInferenceResult::Success {
@@ -193,15 +186,18 @@ impl REPL {
                     for message in warnings.drain(..).map(Into::into) {
                         self.emit_diagnostic(message)?;
                     }
-                let name = format!("line{}", line_no);
+
-                let function_id = self.jitter.compile_function(&name, result)?;
+                    let name = Name::new(format!("line{}", line_no), Location::manufactured());
+                    let function_id = self.jitter.compile_program(name, result)?;
                     self.jitter.module.finalize_definitions()?;
                     let compiled_bytes = self.jitter.bytes(function_id);
                     let compiled_function =
                         unsafe { std::mem::transmute::<_, fn() -> ()>(compiled_bytes) };
                     compiled_function();
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
         Ok(())
     }
 }
-    }
-}

src/syntax.rs

@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 //!
 //!   * Turning the string into a series of language-specific [`Token`]s.
 //!   * Taking those tokens, and computing a basic syntax tree from them,
-//!     using our parser ([`ProgramParser`] or [`StatementParser`], generated
+//!     using our parser ([`ProgramParser`] or [`TopLevelParser`], generated
 //!     by [`lalrpop`](https://lalrpop.github.io/lalrpop/)).
 //!   * Validating the tree we have parsed, using [`Program::validate`],
 //!     returning any warnings or errors we have found.
@@ -29,30 +29,28 @@ use logos::Logos;
 
 pub mod arbitrary;
 mod ast;
-mod eval;
+pub mod eval;
+mod free_variables;
 mod location;
+mod name;
+mod replace_references;
 mod tokens;
 lalrpop_mod!(
     #[allow(clippy::just_underscores_and_digits, clippy::clone_on_copy)]
     parser,
     "/syntax/parser.rs"
 );
-mod pretty;
+pub mod pretty;
 mod validate;
 
-#[cfg(test)]
+pub use crate::syntax::arbitrary::ProgramGenerator;
-use crate::syntax::arbitrary::GenerationEnvironment;
 pub use crate::syntax::ast::*;
 pub use crate::syntax::location::Location;
-pub use crate::syntax::parser::{ProgramParser, StatementParser};
+pub use crate::syntax::name::Name;
+pub use crate::syntax::parser::{ExpressionParser, ProgramParser, TopLevelParser};
 pub use crate::syntax::tokens::{LexerError, Token};
-#[cfg(test)]
-use ::pretty::{Arena, Pretty};
 use lalrpop_util::ParseError;
-#[cfg(test)]
+use std::ops::Range;
-use proptest::{arbitrary::Arbitrary, prop_assert, prop_assert_eq};
-#[cfg(test)]
-use std::str::FromStr;
 use thiserror::Error;
 
 /// One of the many errors that can occur when processing text input.
@@ -105,7 +103,7 @@ impl ParserError {
     /// closely. The major thing we do here is convert [`lalrpop`]'s notion of a location,
     /// which is just an offset that it got from the lexer, into an actual location that
     /// we can use in our [`Diagnostic`]s.
-    fn convert(file_idx: usize, err: ParseError<usize, Token, LexerError>) -> Self {
+    fn convert(file_idx: usize, err: ParseError<usize, Token, ParserError>) -> Self {
         match err {
             ParseError::InvalidToken { location } => {
                 ParserError::InvalidToken(Location::new(file_idx, location..location + 1))
@@ -123,11 +121,7 @@ impl ParserError {
             ParseError::ExtraToken {
                 token: (start, token, end),
             } => ParserError::ExtraToken(Location::new(file_idx, start..end), token),
-            ParseError::User { error } => match error {
+            ParseError::User { error } => error,
-                LexerError::LexFailure(offset) => {
-                    ParserError::LexFailure(Location::new(file_idx, offset..offset + 1))
-                }
-            },
         }
     }
 }
@@ -209,7 +203,6 @@ impl<'a> From<&'a ParserError> for Diagnostic<usize> {
     }
 }
 
-impl Program {
 /// Parse the given file, adding it to the database as part of the process.
 ///
 /// This operation reads the file from disk and adds it to the database for future
@@ -221,11 +214,11 @@ impl Program {
 pub fn parse_file(
     file_database: &mut SimpleFiles<String, String>,
     file_name: &str,
-    ) -> Result<Self, ParserError> {
+) -> Result<Vec<TopLevel>, ParserError> {
     let file_contents = std::fs::read_to_string(file_name)?;
     let file_handle = file_database.add(file_name.to_string(), file_contents);
     let file_db_info = file_database.get(file_handle)?;
-        Program::parse(file_handle, file_db_info.source())
+    parse_string(file_handle, file_db_info.source())
 }
 
 /// Parse a block of text you have in memory, using the given index for [`Location`]s.
@@ -233,39 +226,58 @@ impl Program {
 /// If you use a nonsensical file index, everything will work fine until you try to
 /// report an error, at which point [`codespan_reporting`] may have some nasty things
 /// to say to you.
-    pub fn parse(file_idx: usize, buffer: &str) -> Result<Program, ParserError> {
+pub fn parse_string(file_idx: usize, buffer: &str) -> Result<Vec<TopLevel>, ParserError> {
     let lexer = Token::lexer(buffer)
         .spanned()
-            .map(|(token, range)| (range.start, token, range.end));
+        .map(|x| permute_lexer_result(file_idx, x));
     ProgramParser::new()
         .parse(file_idx, lexer)
         .map_err(|e| ParserError::convert(file_idx, e))
 }
-}
 
-impl Statement {
+impl TopLevel {
-    /// Parse a statement that you have in memory, using the given index for [`Location`]s.
+    /// Parse a top-level item that you have in memory, using the given index for [`Location`]s.
     ///
     /// As with [`Program::parse`], if you use a bad file index, you'll get weird behaviors
     /// when you try to print errors, but things should otherwise work fine. This function
     /// will only parse a single statement, which is useful in the REPL, but probably shouldn't
     /// be used when reading in whole files.
-    pub fn parse(file_idx: usize, buffer: &str) -> Result<Statement, ParserError> {
+    pub fn parse(file_idx: usize, buffer: &str) -> Result<TopLevel, ParserError> {
         let lexer = Token::lexer(buffer)
             .spanned()
-            .map(|(token, range)| (range.start, token, range.end));
+            .map(|x| permute_lexer_result(file_idx, x));
-        StatementParser::new()
+        TopLevelParser::new()
             .parse(file_idx, lexer)
             .map_err(|e| ParserError::convert(file_idx, e))
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
+impl Expression {
-impl FromStr for Program {
+    /// Parse an expression from a string, using the given index for [`Location`]s.
-    type Err = ParserError;
+    ///
+    /// As with [`Program::parse`], if you use a bad file index, you'll get weird behaviors
+    /// when you try to print errors, but things should otherwise work fine. This function
+    /// will only parse a single expression, which is useful for testing, but probably shouldn't
+    /// be used when reading in whole files.
+    pub fn parse(file_idx: usize, buffer: &str) -> Result<Expression, ParserError> {
+        let lexer = Token::lexer(buffer)
+            .spanned()
+            .map(|x| permute_lexer_result(file_idx, x));
+        ExpressionParser::new()
+            .parse(file_idx, lexer)
+            .map_err(|e| ParserError::convert(file_idx, e))
+    }
+}
 
-    fn from_str(s: &str) -> Result<Program, ParserError> {
+fn permute_lexer_result(
-        Program::parse(0, s)
+    file_idx: usize,
+    result: (Result<Token, ()>, Range<usize>),
+) -> Result<(usize, Token, usize), ParserError> {
+    let (token, range) = result;
+
+    match token {
+        Ok(v) => Ok((range.start, v, range.end)),
+        Err(()) => Err(ParserError::LexFailure(Location::new(file_idx, range))),
     }
 }
 
@@ -274,22 +286,24 @@ fn order_of_operations() {
     let muladd1 = "x = 1 + 2 * 3;";
     let testfile = 0;
     assert_eq!(
-        Program::from_str(muladd1).unwrap(),
+        parse_string(0, muladd1).unwrap(),
-        Program {
+        vec![TopLevel::Expression(Expression::Binding(
-            statements: vec![Statement::Binding(
             Location::new(testfile, 0..1),
             Name::manufactured("x"),
-                Expression::Primitive(
+            Box::new(Expression::Call(
                 Location::new(testfile, 6..7),
-                    "+".to_string(),
+                Box::new(Expression::Primitive(
+                    Location::new(testfile, 6..7),
+                    Name::manufactured("+")
+                )),
                 vec![
-                        Expression::Value(
+                    Expression::Value(Location::new(testfile, 4..5), Value::Number(None, None, 1),),
-                            Location::new(testfile, 4..5),
+                    Expression::Call(
-                            Value::Number(None, None, 1),
-                        ),
-                        Expression::Primitive(
                         Location::new(testfile, 10..11),
-                            "*".to_string(),
+                        Box::new(Expression::Primitive(
+                            Location::new(testfile, 10..11),
+                            Name::manufactured("*")
+                        )),
                         vec![
                             Expression::Value(
                                 Location::new(testfile, 8..9),
@@ -302,43 +316,44 @@ fn order_of_operations() {
                         ]
                     )
                 ]
-                )
+            ))
-            ),],
+        ))],
-        }
     );
 }
 
 proptest::proptest! {
     #[test]
-    fn random_render_parses_equal(program: Program) {
+    fn syntax_asts_roundtrip(program in self::arbitrary::ProgramGenerator::default()) {
-        let mut file_database = SimpleFiles::new();
+        use crate::util::pretty::Allocator;
-        let writer = ::pretty::termcolor::StandardStream::stderr(::pretty::termcolor::ColorChoice::Auto);
-        let config = codespan_reporting::term::Config::default();
-        let allocator = Arena::<()>::new();
 
-        let mut out_vector = vec![];
+        let allocator = Allocator::new();
-        prop_assert!(program.pretty(&allocator).render(80, &mut out_vector).is_ok());
+        let mut outbytes = Vec::new();
-        let string = std::str::from_utf8(&out_vector).expect("emitted valid string");
-        let file_handle = file_database.add("test", string);
-        let file_db_info = file_database.get(file_handle).expect("find thing just inserted");
-        let parsed = Program::parse(file_handle, file_db_info.source());
 
-        if let Err(e) = &parsed {
+        for top_level in program.iter() {
-            eprintln!("failed to parse:\n{}", string);
+            let docbuilder = top_level.pretty(&allocator);
-            codespan_reporting::term::emit(&mut writer.lock(), &config, &file_database, &e.into()).unwrap();
+            docbuilder.render(78, &mut outbytes).expect("can write program text");
         }
-        prop_assert_eq!(program, parsed.unwrap());
+
+        let outstr = std::str::from_utf8(&outbytes).expect("generated utf8");
+        println!("---------------- GENERATED TEXT -------------------");
+        println!("{}", outstr);
+        println!("---------------------------------------------------");
+
+        let syntax = crate::syntax::parse_string(0, &outstr).expect("generated text parses");
+        assert_eq!(program, syntax);
     }
 
     #[test]
-     fn random_syntaxes_validate(program: Program) {
+    fn random_syntaxes_validate(program in self::arbitrary::ProgramGenerator::default()) {
-        let (errors, _) = program.validate();
+       let result = Program::validate(program);
-        prop_assert!(errors.is_empty());
+       proptest::prop_assert!(result.is_ok());
     }
 
     #[test]
-     fn generated_run_or_overflow(program in Program::arbitrary_with(GenerationEnvironment::new(false))) {
+    fn generated_run_or_overflow(program in self::arbitrary::ProgramGenerator::default()) {
        use crate::eval::{EvalError, PrimOpError};
-        prop_assert!(matches!(program.eval(), Ok(_) | Err(EvalError::PrimOp(PrimOpError::MathFailure(_)))));
+       let validated = Program::validate(program);
+       let actual_program = validated.into_result().expect("got a valid result");
+       proptest::prop_assert!(matches!(actual_program.eval(), Ok(_) | Err(EvalError::PrimOp(PrimOpError::MathFailure(_)))));
     }
 }

src/syntax/ast.rs

@@ -1,10 +1,9 @@
-use std::fmt;
+use crate::syntax::name::Name;
-use std::hash::Hash;
-
-use internment::ArcIntern;
-
 pub use crate::syntax::tokens::ConstantType;
 use crate::syntax::Location;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use super::location::Located;
 
 /// A structure represented a parsed program.
 ///
@@ -16,87 +15,75 @@ use crate::syntax::Location;
 /// `validate` and it comes back without errors.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
 pub struct Program {
-    pub statements: Vec<Statement>,
+    pub functions: HashMap<Name, FunctionDefinition>,
+    pub structures: HashMap<Name, StructureDefinition>,
+    pub body: Expression,
 }
 
-/// A Name.
+/// A function that we want to compile.
 ///
-/// This is basically a string, but annotated with the place the string
+/// Later, when we've done a lot of analysis, the `Option<Type>`s
-/// is in the source file.
+/// will turn into concrete types. For now, though, we stick with
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+/// the surface syntax and leave them as optional. The name of the
-pub struct Name {
+/// function is intentionally duplicated, to make our life easier.
-    pub name: String,
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct FunctionDefinition {
+    pub name: Name,
+    pub arguments: Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>,
+    pub return_type: Option<Type>,
+    pub body: Expression,
+}
+
+impl FunctionDefinition {
+    pub fn new(
+        name: Name,
+        arguments: Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>,
+        return_type: Option<Type>,
+        body: Expression,
+    ) -> Self {
+        FunctionDefinition {
+            name,
+            arguments,
+            return_type,
+            body,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A structure type that we might want to reference in the future.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
+pub struct StructureDefinition {
+    pub name: Name,
     pub location: Location,
+    pub fields: Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>,
 }
 
-impl Name {
+impl StructureDefinition {
-    pub fn new<S: ToString>(n: S, location: Location) -> Name {
+    pub fn new(location: Location, name: Name, fields: Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>) -> Self {
-        Name {
+        StructureDefinition {
-            name: n.to_string(),
+            name,
             location,
+            fields,
+        }
     }
 }
 
-    pub fn manufactured<S: ToString>(n: S) -> Name {
+/// A thing that can sit at the top level of a file.
-        Name {
-            name: n.to_string(),
-            location: Location::manufactured(),
-        }
-    }
-
-    pub fn intern(self) -> ArcIntern<String> {
-        ArcIntern::new(self.name)
-    }
-}
-
-impl PartialEq for Name {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
-        self.name == other.name
-    }
-}
-
-impl Eq for Name {}
-
-impl Hash for Name {
-    fn hash<H: std::hash::Hasher>(&self, state: &mut H) {
-        self.name.hash(state)
-    }
-}
-
-impl fmt::Display for Name {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        self.name.fmt(f)
-    }
-}
-
-/// A parsed statement.
 ///
-/// Statements are guaranteed to be syntactically valid, but may be
+/// For the moment, these are statements and functions. Other things
-/// complete nonsense at the semantic level. Which is to say, all the
+/// will likely be added in the future, but for now: just statements
-/// print statements were correctly formatted, and all the variables
+/// and functions
-/// referenced are definitely valid symbols, but they may not have
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
-/// been defined or anything.
+pub enum TopLevel {
-///
+    Expression(Expression),
-/// Note that equivalence testing on statements is independent of
+    Structure(Location, Name, Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>),
-/// source location; it is testing if the two statements say the same
-/// thing, not if they are the exact same statement.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub enum Statement {
-    Binding(Location, Name, Expression),
-    Print(Location, Name),
 }
 
-impl PartialEq for Statement {
+impl Located for TopLevel {
-    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+    fn location(&self) -> &Location {
         match self {
-            Statement::Binding(_, name1, expr1) => match other {
+            TopLevel::Expression(exp) => exp.location(),
-                Statement::Binding(_, name2, expr2) => name1 == name2 && expr1 == expr2,
+            TopLevel::Structure(loc, _, _) => loc,
-                _ => false,
-            },
-            Statement::Print(_, name1) => match other {
-                Statement::Print(_, name2) => name1 == name2,
-                _ => false,
-            },
         }
     }
 }
@@ -110,9 +97,34 @@ impl PartialEq for Statement {
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
 pub enum Expression {
     Value(Location, Value),
-    Reference(Location, String),
+    Constructor(Location, Name, Vec<(Name, Expression)>),
+    Reference(Name),
+    FieldRef(Location, Box<Expression>, Name),
     Cast(Location, String, Box<Expression>),
-    Primitive(Location, String, Vec<Expression>),
+    Primitive(Location, Name),
+    Call(Location, Box<Expression>, Vec<Expression>),
+    Block(Location, Vec<Expression>),
+    Binding(Location, Name, Box<Expression>),
+    Function(
+        Location,
+        Option<Name>,
+        Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>,
+        Option<Type>,
+        Box<Expression>,
+    ),
+}
+
+impl Expression {
+    pub fn primitive(loc: Location, name: &str, args: Vec<Expression>) -> Expression {
+        Expression::Call(
+            loc.clone(),
+            Box::new(Expression::Primitive(
+                loc.clone(),
+                Name::new(name, loc.clone()),
+            )),
+            args,
+        )
+    }
 }
 
 impl PartialEq for Expression {
@@ -122,18 +134,62 @@ impl PartialEq for Expression {
                 Expression::Value(_, val2) => val1 == val2,
                 _ => false,
             },
-            Expression::Reference(_, var1) => match other {
+            Expression::Constructor(_, name1, fields1) => match other {
-                Expression::Reference(_, var2) => var1 == var2,
+                Expression::Constructor(_, name2, fields2) => name1 == name2 && fields1 == fields2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Expression::Reference(var1) => match other {
+                Expression::Reference(var2) => var1 == var2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, exp1, field1) => match other {
+                Expression::FieldRef(_, exp2, field2) => exp1 == exp2 && field1 == field2,
                 _ => false,
             },
             Expression::Cast(_, t1, e1) => match other {
                 Expression::Cast(_, t2, e2) => t1 == t2 && e1 == e2,
                 _ => false,
             },
-            Expression::Primitive(_, prim1, args1) => match other {
+            Expression::Primitive(_, prim1) => match other {
-                Expression::Primitive(_, prim2, args2) => prim1 == prim2 && args1 == args2,
+                Expression::Primitive(_, prim2) => prim1 == prim2,
                 _ => false,
             },
+            Expression::Call(_, f1, a1) => match other {
+                Expression::Call(_, f2, a2) => f1 == f2 && a1 == a2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Expression::Block(_, stmts1) => match other {
+                Expression::Block(_, stmts2) => stmts1 == stmts2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Expression::Binding(_, name1, expr1) => match other {
+                Expression::Binding(_, name2, expr2) => name1 == name2 && expr1 == expr2,
+                _ => false,
+            },
+            Expression::Function(_, mname1, args1, mret1, body1) => match other {
+                Expression::Function(_, mname2, args2, mret2, body2) => {
+                    mname1 == mname2 && args1 == args2 && mret1 == mret2 && body1 == body2
+                }
+                _ => false,
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Located for Expression {
+    /// Get the location of the expression in the source file (if there is one).
+    fn location(&self) -> &Location {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Value(loc, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Constructor(loc, _, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Reference(n) => n.location(),
+            Expression::FieldRef(loc, _, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Cast(loc, _, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Primitive(loc, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Call(loc, _, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Block(loc, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Binding(loc, _, _) => loc,
+            Expression::Function(loc, _, _, _, _) => loc,
         }
     }
 }
@@ -149,4 +205,12 @@ pub enum Value {
     /// operation "-" on the number 4. We'll translate this into a type-specific
     /// number at a later time.
     Number(Option<u8>, Option<ConstantType>, u64),
+    /// The empty value
+    Void,
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub enum Type {
+    Named(Name),
+    Struct(Vec<(Name, Option<Type>)>),
 }

src/syntax/eval.rs

@@ -1,11 +1,12 @@
-use internment::ArcIntern;
+use crate::eval::{EvalError, PrimitiveType, Value};
-
+use crate::syntax::{ConstantType, Expression, Name, Program};
-use crate::eval::{EvalEnvironment, EvalError, PrimitiveType, Value};
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
-use crate::syntax::{ConstantType, Expression, Program, Statement};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 
 impl Program {
-    /// Evaluate the program, returning either an error or what it prints out when run.
+    /// Evaluate the program, returning either an error or a pair of the final value
+    /// produced and the output printed to the console.
     ///
     /// Doing this evaluation is particularly useful for testing, to ensure that if we
     /// modify a program in some way it does the same thing on both sides of the
@@ -15,38 +16,26 @@ impl Program {
     /// Note that the errors here are slightly more strict that we enforce at runtime.
     /// For example, we check for overflow and underflow errors during evaluation, and
     /// we don't check for those in the compiled code.
-    pub fn eval(&self) -> Result<String, EvalError> {
+    pub fn eval(&self) -> Result<(Value<Expression>, String), EvalError<Expression>> {
-        let mut env = EvalEnvironment::empty();
+        let mut env = ScopedMap::new();
         let mut stdout = String::new();
-
+        let result = self.body.eval(&mut stdout, &mut env)?;
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
+        Ok((result, stdout))
-            // at this point, evaluation is pretty simple. just walk through each
-            // statement, in order, and record printouts as we come to them.
-            match stmt {
-                Statement::Binding(_, name, value) => {
-                    let actual_value = value.eval(&env)?;
-                    env = env.extend(name.clone().intern(), actual_value);
-                }
-
-                Statement::Print(_, name) => {
-                    let value = env.lookup(name.clone().intern())?;
-                    let line = format!("{} = {}\n", name, value);
-                    stdout.push_str(&line);
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        Ok(stdout)
     }
 }
 
 impl Expression {
-    fn eval(&self, env: &EvalEnvironment) -> Result<Value, EvalError> {
+    fn eval(
+        &self,
+        stdout: &mut String,
+        env: &mut ScopedMap<Name, Value<Expression>>,
+    ) -> Result<Value<Expression>, EvalError<Expression>> {
         match self {
             Expression::Value(_, v) => match v {
                 super::Value::Number(_, ty, v) => match ty {
-                    None => Ok(Value::U64(*v)),
+                    None => Ok(Value::Number(*v)),
                     // FIXME: make these types validate their input size
+                    Some(ConstantType::Void) => Ok(Value::Void),
                     Some(ConstantType::I8) => Ok(Value::I8(*v as i8)),
                     Some(ConstantType::I16) => Ok(Value::I16(*v as i16)),
                     Some(ConstantType::I32) => Ok(Value::I32(*v as i32)),
@@ -56,25 +45,141 @@ impl Expression {
                     Some(ConstantType::U32) => Ok(Value::U32(*v as u32)),
                     Some(ConstantType::U64) => Ok(Value::U64(*v)),
                 },
+
+                super::Value::Void => Ok(Value::Void),
             },
 
-            Expression::Reference(_, n) => Ok(env.lookup(ArcIntern::new(n.clone()))?),
+            Expression::Constructor(_, on, fields) => {
+                let mut map = HashMap::with_capacity(fields.len());
+
+                for (k, v) in fields.iter() {
+                    map.insert(k.clone(), v.eval(stdout, env)?);
+                }
+
+                Ok(Value::Structure(Some(on.clone()), map))
+            }
+
+            Expression::Reference(n) => env
+                .get(n)
+                .ok_or_else(|| {
+                    EvalError::LookupFailed(n.location().clone(), n.current_name().to_string())
+                })
+                .cloned(),
+
+            Expression::FieldRef(loc, expr, field) => {
+                let struck = expr.eval(stdout, env)?;
+
+                if let Value::Structure(on, mut fields) = struck {
+                    if let Some(value) = fields.remove(&field.clone()) {
+                        Ok(value)
+                    } else {
+                        Err(EvalError::BadFieldForStructure(
+                            loc.clone(),
+                            on,
+                            field.clone(),
+                        ))
+                    }
+                } else {
+                    Err(EvalError::NoFieldForValue(
+                        loc.clone(),
+                        struck,
+                        field.clone(),
+                    ))
+                }
+            }
 
             Expression::Cast(_, target, expr) => {
                 let target_type = PrimitiveType::from_str(target)?;
-                let value = expr.eval(env)?;
+                let value = expr.eval(stdout, env)?;
                 Ok(target_type.safe_cast(&value)?)
             }
 
-            Expression::Primitive(_, op, args) => {
+            Expression::Primitive(_, op) => Ok(Value::primitive(op.original_name().to_string())),
-                let mut arg_values = Vec::with_capacity(args.len());
 
-                for arg in args.iter() {
+            Expression::Call(loc, fun, args) => {
-                    // yay, recursion! makes this pretty straightforward
+                let function = fun.eval(stdout, env)?;
-                    arg_values.push(arg.eval(env)?);
+
+                match function {
+                    Value::Closure(name, mut closure_env, arguments, body) => {
+                        if args.len() != arguments.len() {
+                            return Err(EvalError::WrongArgCount(
+                                loc.clone(),
+                                name,
+                                arguments.len(),
+                                args.len(),
+                            ));
                         }
 
-                Ok(Value::calculate(op, arg_values)?)
+                        closure_env.new_scope();
+                        for (name, value) in arguments.into_iter().zip(args.iter()) {
+                            let value = value.eval(stdout, env)?;
+                            closure_env.insert(name, value);
+                        }
+                        let result = body.eval(stdout, &mut closure_env)?;
+                        closure_env.release_scope();
+                        Ok(result)
+                    }
+
+                    Value::Primitive(name) if name == "print" => {
+                        if let [Expression::Reference(name)] = &args[..] {
+                            let value = Expression::Reference(name.clone()).eval(stdout, env)?;
+                            let value = match value {
+                                Value::Number(x) => Value::U64(x),
+                                x => x,
+                            };
+                            let addendum = format!("{} = {}\n", name, value);
+
+                            stdout.push_str(&addendum);
+                            Ok(Value::Void)
+                        } else {
+                            panic!(
+                                "Non-reference/non-singleton argument to 'print': {:?}",
+                                args
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    Value::Primitive(name) => {
+                        let values = args
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|x| x.eval(stdout, env))
+                            .collect::<Result<_, _>>()?;
+                        Value::calculate(name.as_str(), values).map_err(Into::into)
+                    }
+
+                    _ => Err(EvalError::NotAFunction(loc.clone(), function)),
+                }
+            }
+
+            Expression::Block(_, stmts) => {
+                let mut result = Value::Void;
+
+                for stmt in stmts.iter() {
+                    result = stmt.eval(stdout, env)?;
+                }
+
+                Ok(result)
+            }
+
+            Expression::Binding(_, name, value) => {
+                let actual_value = value.eval(stdout, env)?;
+                env.insert(name.clone(), actual_value.clone());
+                Ok(actual_value)
+            }
+
+            Expression::Function(_, name, arg_names, _, body) => {
+                let result = Value::Closure(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    env.clone(),
+                    arg_names.iter().cloned().map(|(x, _)| x.clone()).collect(),
+                    *body.clone(),
+                );
+
+                if let Some(name) = name {
+                    env.insert(name.clone(), result.clone());
+                }
+
+                Ok(result)
             }
         }
     }
@@ -82,14 +187,17 @@ impl Expression {
 
 #[test]
 fn two_plus_three() {
-    let input = Program::parse(0, "x = 2 + 3; print x;").expect("parse works");
+    let input = crate::syntax::parse_string(0, "x = 2 + 3; print x;").expect("parse works");
-    let output = input.eval().expect("runs successfully");
+    let program = Program::validate(input).into_result().unwrap();
+    let (_, output) = program.eval().expect("runs successfully");
     assert_eq!("x = 5u64\n", &output);
 }
 
 #[test]
 fn lotsa_math() {
-    let input = Program::parse(0, "x = 2 + 3 * 10 / 5 - 1; print x;").expect("parse works");
+    let input =
-    let output = input.eval().expect("runs successfully");
+        crate::syntax::parse_string(0, "x = 2 + 3 * 10 / 5 - 1; print x;").expect("parse works");
+    let program = Program::validate(input).into_result().unwrap();
+    let (_, output) = program.eval().expect("runs successfully");
     assert_eq!("x = 7u64\n", &output);
 }

src/syntax/free_variables.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,161 @@
+use crate::syntax::{Expression, Name};
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+
+impl Expression {
+    /// Find the set of free variables used within this expression.
+    ///
+    /// Obviously, if this expression contains a function definition, argument
+    /// variables in the body will not be reported as free.
+    pub fn free_variables(&self) -> HashSet<Name> {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Value(_, _) => HashSet::new(),
+            Expression::Constructor(_, _, args) => {
+                args.iter().fold(HashSet::new(), |mut existing, (_, expr)| {
+                    existing.extend(expr.free_variables());
+                    existing
+                })
+            }
+            Expression::Reference(n) => HashSet::from([n.clone()]),
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, expr, _) => expr.free_variables(),
+            Expression::Cast(_, _, expr) => expr.free_variables(),
+            Expression::Primitive(_, _) => HashSet::new(),
+            Expression::Call(_, f, args) => {
+                args.iter().fold(f.free_variables(), |mut existing, expr| {
+                    existing.extend(expr.free_variables());
+                    existing
+                })
+            }
+            Expression::Block(_, exprs) => {
+                let mut free_vars = HashSet::new();
+                let mut bound_vars = HashSet::new();
+
+                for expr in exprs.iter() {
+                    for var in expr.free_variables().into_iter() {
+                        if !bound_vars.contains(&var) {
+                            free_vars.insert(var);
+                        }
+                    }
+
+                    bound_vars.extend(expr.new_bindings());
+                }
+
+                free_vars
+            }
+            Expression::Binding(_, _, expr) => expr.free_variables(),
+            Expression::Function(_, name, args, _, body) => {
+                let mut candidates = body.free_variables();
+                if let Some(name) = name {
+                    candidates.remove(name);
+                }
+                for (name, _) in args.iter() {
+                    candidates.remove(name);
+                }
+                candidates
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Find the set of new bindings in the provided expression.
+    ///
+    /// New bindings are those that introduce a variable that can be
+    /// referenced in subsequent statements / expressions within a
+    /// parent construct. This eventually means something in the next
+    /// block, but can involve some odd effects in the language.
+    pub fn new_bindings(&self) -> HashSet<Name> {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Value(_, _) => HashSet::new(),
+            Expression::Constructor(_, _, args) => {
+                args.iter().fold(HashSet::new(), |mut existing, (_, expr)| {
+                    existing.extend(expr.new_bindings());
+                    existing
+                })
+            }
+            Expression::Reference(_) => HashSet::new(),
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, expr, _) => expr.new_bindings(),
+            Expression::Cast(_, _, expr) => expr.new_bindings(),
+            Expression::Primitive(_, _) => HashSet::new(),
+            Expression::Call(_, f, args) => {
+                args.iter().fold(f.new_bindings(), |mut existing, expr| {
+                    existing.extend(expr.new_bindings());
+                    existing
+                })
+            }
+            Expression::Block(_, _) => HashSet::new(),
+            Expression::Binding(_, name, expr) => {
+                let mut others = expr.new_bindings();
+                others.insert(name.clone());
+                others
+            }
+            Expression::Function(_, Some(name), _, _, _) => HashSet::from([name.clone()]),
+            Expression::Function(_, None, _, _, _) => HashSet::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn basic_frees_works() {
+    let test = Expression::parse(0, "1u64").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(0, test.free_variables().len());
+
+    let test = Expression::parse(0, "1u64 + 2").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(0, test.free_variables().len());
+
+    let test = Expression::parse(0, "x").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, test.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(test.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("x")));
+
+    let test = Expression::parse(0, "1 + x").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, test.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(test.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("x")));
+
+    let test = Expression::parse(0, "Structure{ field1: x; field2: y; }").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(2, test.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(test.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("x")));
+    assert!(test.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("y")));
+
+    let test = Expression::parse(0, "{ print x; print y }").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(2, test.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(test.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("x")));
+    assert!(test.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("y")));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_around_function() {
+    let nada = Expression::parse(0, "function(x) x").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(0, nada.free_variables().len());
+
+    let lift = Expression::parse(0, "function(x) x + y").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, lift.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(lift.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("y")));
+
+    let nest = Expression::parse(0, "function(y) function(x) x + y").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(0, nest.free_variables().len());
+
+    let multi = Expression::parse(0, "function(x, y) x + y + z").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, multi.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(multi.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("z")));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_is_set() {
+    let multi = Expression::parse(0, "function(x, y) x + y + z + z").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, multi.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(multi.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("z")));
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn bindings_remove() {
+    let x_bind = Expression::parse(0, "{ x = 4; print x }").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(0, x_bind.free_variables().len());
+
+    let inner = Expression::parse(0, "{ { x = 4; print x }; print y }").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, inner.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(inner.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("y")));
+
+    let inner = Expression::parse(0, "{ { x = 4; print x }; print x }").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(1, inner.free_variables().len());
+    assert!(inner.free_variables().contains(&Name::manufactured("x")));
+
+    let double = Expression::parse(0, "{ x = y = 1; x + y }").unwrap();
+    assert_eq!(0, double.free_variables().len());
+}

src/syntax/location.rs

@@ -12,6 +12,10 @@ pub struct Location {
     location: Range<usize>,
 }
 
+pub trait Located {
+    fn location(&self) -> &Location;
+}
+
 impl Location {
     /// Generate a new `Location` from a file index and an offset from the
     /// start of the file.
@@ -85,9 +89,9 @@ impl Location {
     /// the user with some guidance. That being said, you still might want to add
     /// even more information to ut, using [`Diagnostic::with_labels`],
     /// [`Diagnostic::with_notes`], or [`Diagnostic::with_code`].
-    pub fn labelled_error(&self, msg: &str) -> Diagnostic<usize> {
+    pub fn labelled_error<T: AsRef<str>>(&self, msg: T) -> Diagnostic<usize> {
         Diagnostic::error().with_labels(vec![
-            Label::primary(self.file_idx, self.location.clone()).with_message(msg)
+            Label::primary(self.file_idx, self.location.clone()).with_message(msg.as_ref())
         ])
     }
 
@@ -116,4 +120,36 @@ impl Location {
             })
         }
     }
+
+    /// Infer a location set by combining all of the information we have
+    /// in the list of located things.
+    ///
+    /// This will attempt to throw away manufactured locations whenever
+    /// possible, but if there's multiple files mixed in it will likely
+    /// fail. In all failure cases, including when the set of items is
+    /// empty, will return a manufactured location to use.
+    pub fn infer_from<T: Located>(items: &[T]) -> Location {
+        let mut current = None;
+
+        for item in items {
+            let location = item.location();
+
+            if (location.file_idx != 0)
+                || (location.location.start != 0)
+                || (location.location.end != 0)
+            {
+                current = match current {
+                    None => Some(Some(location.clone())),
+                    Some(None) => Some(None), // we ran into an error somewhere
+                    Some(Some(actual)) => Some(actual.merge(location)),
+                };
+            }
+        }
+
+        match current {
+            None => Location::manufactured(),
+            Some(None) => Location::manufactured(),
+            Some(Some(x)) => x,
+        }
+    }
 }

src/syntax/name.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+use crate::syntax::Location;
+use internment::ArcIntern;
+use std::fmt;
+use std::hash::Hash;
+use std::sync::atomic::{AtomicU64, Ordering};
+
+/// The name of a thing in the source language.
+///
+/// In many ways, you can treat this like a string, but it's a very tricky
+/// string in a couple of ways:
+///
+/// First, it's a string associated with a particular location in the source
+/// file, and you can find out what that source location is relatively easily.
+///
+/// Second, it's a name that retains something of its identity across renaming,
+/// so that you can keep track of what a variables original name was, as well as
+/// what it's new name is if it's been renamed.
+///
+/// Finally, when it comes to equality tests, comparisons, and hashing, `Name`
+/// uses *only* the new name, if the variable has been renamed, or the original
+/// name, if it has not been renamed. It never uses the location. This allows
+/// relatively fast hashing and searching for things like binding sites, as the
+/// value of the binding `Name` will be equal to the bound `Name`, even though
+/// they occur at different locations.
+#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
+pub struct Name {
+    name: ArcIntern<String>,
+    rename: Option<ArcIntern<String>>,
+    location: Location,
+}
+
+impl Name {
+    /// Create a new name at the given location.
+    ///
+    /// This creates an "original" name, which has not been renamed, at the
+    /// given location.
+    pub fn new<S: ToString>(n: S, location: Location) -> Name {
+        Name {
+            name: ArcIntern::new(n.to_string()),
+            rename: None,
+            location,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new name with no location information.
+    ///
+    /// This creates an "original" name, which has not been renamed, at the
+    /// given location. You should always prefer to use [`Location::new`] if
+    /// there is any possible way to get it, because that will be more
+    /// helpful to our users.
+    pub fn manufactured<S: ToString>(n: S) -> Name {
+        Name {
+            name: ArcIntern::new(n.to_string()),
+            rename: None,
+            location: Location::manufactured(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Create a unique name based on the original name provided.
+    ///
+    /// This will automatically append a number and wrap that in
+    /// <>, which is hoped to be unique.
+    pub fn gensym<S: ToString>(n: S) -> Name {
+        static GENSYM_COUNTER: AtomicU64 = AtomicU64::new(0);
+
+        let new_name = format!(
+            "<{}{}>",
+            n.to_string(),
+            GENSYM_COUNTER.fetch_add(1, Ordering::SeqCst)
+        );
+        Name {
+            name: ArcIntern::new(new_name),
+            rename: None,
+            location: Location::manufactured(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// As with gensym, but tie the name to the given location
+    pub fn located_gensym<S: ToString>(location: Location, n: S) -> Name {
+        Name {
+            location,
+            ..Name::gensym(n)
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the original name of the variable.
+    ///
+    /// Regardless of whether or not the function has been renamed, this will
+    /// return whatever name this variable started with.
+    pub fn original_name(&self) -> &str {
+        self.name.as_str()
+    }
+
+    /// Returns a reference to the current name of the variable.
+    ///
+    /// If the variable has been renamed, it will return that, otherwise we'll
+    /// return the current name.
+    pub fn current_name(&self) -> &str {
+        self.rename
+            .as_ref()
+            .map(|x| x.as_str())
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| self.name.as_str())
+    }
+
+    /// Returns the current name of the variable as an interned string.
+    pub fn current_interned(&self) -> &ArcIntern<String> {
+        self.rename.as_ref().unwrap_or(&self.name)
+    }
+
+    /// Return the location of this name.
+    pub fn location(&self) -> &Location {
+        &self.location
+    }
+
+    /// Rename this variable to the given value
+    pub fn rename(&mut self, new_name: &ArcIntern<String>) {
+        self.rename = Some(new_name.clone());
+    }
+
+    pub fn intern(&self) -> ArcIntern<String> {
+        self.current_interned().clone()
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for Name {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.current_interned() == other.current_interned()
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for Name {}
+
+impl Hash for Name {
+    fn hash<H: std::hash::Hasher>(&self, state: &mut H) {
+        self.current_interned().hash(state)
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for Name {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        self.current_name().fmt(f)
+    }
+}

src/syntax/parser.lalrpop

@@ -8,8 +8,9 @@
 //! (Although, at some point, things can become so complicated that you might
 //! eventually want to leave lalrpop behind.)
 //!
-use crate::syntax::{LexerError, Location};
+use crate::syntax::{Location, ParserError};
-use crate::syntax::ast::{Program,Statement,Expression,Value,Name};
+use crate::syntax::ast::{TopLevel,Expression,Value,Type};
+use crate::syntax::name::Name;
 use crate::syntax::tokens::{ConstantType, Token};
 use internment::ArcIntern;
 
@@ -24,23 +25,33 @@ grammar(file_idx: usize);
 extern {
     type Location = usize; // Logos, our lexer, implements locations as
                            // offsets from the start of the file.
-    type Error = LexerError;
+    type Error = ParserError;
 
     // here we redeclare all of the tokens.
     enum Token {
         "=" => Token::Equals,
+        ":" => Token::Colon,
         ";" => Token::Semi,
+        "," => Token::Comma,
+        "." => Token::Dot,
         "(" => Token::LeftParen,
         ")" => Token::RightParen,
         "<" => Token::LessThan,
         ">" => Token::GreaterThan,
+        "_" => Token::Underscore,
+        "{" => Token::OpenBrace,
+        "}" => Token::CloseBrace,
+        "->" => Token::SingleArrow,
 
+        "function" => Token::Function,
+        "struct" => Token::Struct,
         "print" => Token::Print,
 
         "+" => Token::Operator('+'),
         "-" => Token::Operator('-'),
         "*" => Token::Operator('*'),
         "/" => Token::Operator('/'),
+        "÷" => Token::Operator('/'),
 
         // the previous items just match their tokens, and if you try
         // to name and use "their value", you get their source location.
@@ -48,62 +59,67 @@ extern {
         // which is why we put their types in angle brackets.
         "<num>" => Token::Number((<Option<u8>>,<Option<ConstantType>>,<u64>)),
         "<var>" => Token::Variable(<ArcIntern<String>>),
+        "<type>" => Token::TypeName(<ArcIntern<String>>),
     }
 }
 
-pub Program: Program = {
+pub Program: Vec<TopLevel> = {
-    // a program is just a set of statements
+    <mut rest: Program> <t:TopLevel> => {
-    <stmts:Statements> => Program {
+        rest.push(t);
-        statements: stmts
+        rest
-    }
-}
-
-Statements: Vec<Statement> = {
-    // a statement is either a set of statements followed by another
-    // statement (note, here, that you can name the result of a sub-parse
-    // using <name: subrule>) ...
-    <mut stmts:Statements> <stmt:Statement> => {
-        stmts.push(stmt);
-        stmts
     },
+    => vec![],
+}
 
-    // ... or it's nothing. This may feel like an awkward way to define
+pub TopLevel: TopLevel = {
-    // lists of things -- and it is a bit awkward -- but there are actual
+    <s:Structure> => s,
-    // technical reasons that you want to (a) use recursivion to define
+    <s:Expression> ";" => TopLevel::Expression(s),
-    // these, and (b) use *left* recursion, specifically. That's why, in
+}
-    // this file, all of the recursive cases are to the left, like they
+
-    // are above.
+Argument: (Name, Option<Type>) = {
-    //
+    <name_start: @L> <v:"<var>"> <name_end: @L> <t:(":" Type)?> => 
-    // the details of why left recursion is better is actually pretty
+        (Name::new(v, Location::new(file_idx, name_start..name_end)), t.map(|v| v.1)),
-    // fiddly and in the weeds, and if you're interested you should look
+}
-    // up LALR parsers versus LL parsers; both their differences and how
+
-    // they're constructed, as they're kind of neat.
+OptionalComma: () = {
-    //
+    => (),
-    // but if you're just writing grammars with lalrpop, then you should
+    "," => (),
-    // just remember that you should always use left recursion, and be
+}
-    // done with it. 
+
-    => {
+Structure: TopLevel = {
-        Vec::new()
+    <s:@L> "struct" <n: TypeName> "{" <fields: Field*> "}" <e:@L> => {
+        TopLevel::Structure(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), n, fields)
     }
 }
 
-pub Statement: Statement = {
+Field: (Name, Option<Type>) = {
-    // A statement can be a variable binding. Note, here, that we use this
+    <s:@L> <name:"<var>"> <e:@L> ":" <field_type: Type> ";" =>
-    // funny @L thing to get the source location before the variable, so that
+        (Name::new(name, Location::new(file_idx, s..e)), Some(field_type)),
-    // we can say that this statement spans across everything.
+    <s:@L> <name:"<var>"> <e:@L> ";" =>
-    <ls: @L> <v:"<var>"> <var_end: @L> "=" <e:Expression> ";" <le: @L> =>
+        (Name::new(name, Location::new(file_idx, s..e)), None),
-        Statement::Binding(
-            Location::new(file_idx, ls..le),
-            Name::new(v, Location::new(file_idx, ls..var_end)),
-            e,
-        ),
 
-    // Alternatively, a statement can just be a print statement.
+}
-    <ls: @L> "print" <name_start: @L> <v:"<var>"> <name_end: @L> ";" <le: @L> =>
+
-        Statement::Print(
+Type: Type = {
-            Location::new(file_idx, ls..le),
+    <name:Name> => Type::Named(name),
+    <t:TypeName> => Type::Named(t),
+    "struct" "{" <fields: TypeField*> "}" =>
+        Type::Struct(fields),
+}
+
+TypeField: (Name, Option<Type>) = {
+    <name: Name> ":" <ty: Type> ";" => (name, Some(ty)),
+    <name: Name> (":" "_")? ";" => (name, None),
+}
+
+Name: Name = {
+    <name_start: @L> <v:"<var>"> <name_end: @L> =>
+        Name::new(v, Location::new(file_idx, name_start..name_end)),
+}
+
+TypeName: Name = {
+    <name_start: @L> <v:"<type>"> <name_end: @L> =>
         Name::new(v, Location::new(file_idx, name_start..name_end)),
-        ),
 }
 
 // Expressions! Expressions are a little fiddly, because we're going to
@@ -129,33 +145,93 @@ pub Statement: Statement = {
 // to run through a few examples. Consider thinking about how you want to
 // parse something like "1 + 2 * 3", for example, versus "1 + 2 + 3" or
 // "1 * 2 + 3", and hopefully that'll help.
-Expression: Expression = {
+pub Expression: Expression = {
+    BindingExpression,
+}
+
+BindingExpression: Expression = {
+    // An expression can be a variable binding. Note, here, that we use this
+    // funny @L thing to get the source location before the variable, so that
+    // we can say that this statement spans across everything.
+    <ls: @L> <v:"<var>"> <var_end: @L> "=" <e:BindingExpression> <le: @L> =>
+        Expression::Binding(
+            Location::new(file_idx, ls..le),
+            Name::new(v, Location::new(file_idx, ls..var_end)),
+            Box::new(e),
+        ),
+
+    FunctionExpression,
+}
+
+FunctionExpression: Expression = {
+    <s:@L> "function" <opt_name:Name?> "(" <args:Comma<Argument>> ")" <ret:("->" Type)?> <exp:Expression> <e:@L> =>
+        Expression::Function(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), opt_name, args, ret.map(|x| x.1), Box::new(exp)),
+
+    PrintExpression,
+}
+
+PrintExpression: Expression = {
+    <ls: @L> "print" <pe: @L> <e: ConstructorExpression> <le: @L> =>
+        Expression::Call(
+            Location::new(file_idx, ls..le),
+            Box::new(
+                Expression::Primitive(
+                   Location::new(file_idx, ls..pe),
+                   Name::new("print", Location::new(file_idx, ls..pe)),
+                ),
+            ),
+            vec![e],
+        ),
+    ConstructorExpression,
+}
+
+ConstructorExpression: Expression = {
+    <s:@L> <name:TypeName> "{" <fields:FieldSetter*> "}" <e:@L> =>
+        Expression::Constructor(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), name, fields),
     AdditiveExpression,
 }
 
+FieldSetter: (Name, Expression) = {
+    <name:Name> ":" <expr:Expression> ";" => (name, expr),
+}
+
 // we group addition and subtraction under the heading "additive"
 AdditiveExpression: Expression = {
     <ls: @L> <e1:AdditiveExpression> <l: @L> "+" <e2:MultiplicativeExpression> <le: @L> =>
-        Expression::Primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "+".to_string(), vec![e1, e2]),
+        Expression::primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "+", vec![e1, e2]),
     <ls: @L> <e1:AdditiveExpression> <l: @L> "-" <e2:MultiplicativeExpression> <le: @L> =>
-        Expression::Primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "-".to_string(), vec![e1, e2]),
+        Expression::primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "-", vec![e1, e2]),
     MultiplicativeExpression,
 }
 
 // similarly, we group multiplication and division under "multiplicative"
 MultiplicativeExpression: Expression = {
     <ls: @L> <e1:MultiplicativeExpression> <l: @L> "*" <e2:UnaryExpression> <le: @L> => 
-        Expression::Primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "*".to_string(), vec![e1, e2]),
+        Expression::primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "*", vec![e1, e2]),
     <ls: @L> <e1:MultiplicativeExpression> <l: @L> "/" <e2:UnaryExpression> <le: @L> =>
-        Expression::Primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "/".to_string(), vec![e1, e2]),
+        Expression::primitive(Location::new(file_idx, ls..le), "/", vec![e1, e2]),
     UnaryExpression,
 }
 
 UnaryExpression: Expression = {
     <l: @L> "-" <e:UnaryExpression> <le: @L> =>
-       Expression::Primitive(Location::new(file_idx, l..le), "-".to_string(), vec![e]),
+       Expression::primitive(Location::new(file_idx, l..le), "negate", vec![e]),
     <l: @L> "<" <v:"<var>"> ">" <e:UnaryExpression> <le: @L> =>
        Expression::Cast(Location::new(file_idx, l..le), v.to_string(), Box::new(e)),
+    <l: @L> "<" <v:"<type>"> ">" <e:UnaryExpression> <le: @L> =>
+       Expression::Cast(Location::new(file_idx, l..le), v.to_string(), Box::new(e)),
+    CallExpression,
+}
+
+CallExpression: Expression = {
+    <s: @L> <f:CallExpression> "(" <args: Comma<Expression>> ")" <e: @L> =>
+       Expression::Call(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), Box::new(f), args),
+    FieldExpression,
+}
+
+FieldExpression: Expression = {
+    <s: @L> <fe:FieldExpression> "." <field:Name> <e: @L> =>
+        Expression::FieldRef(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), Box::new(fe), field),
     AtomicExpression,
 }
 
@@ -163,10 +239,33 @@ UnaryExpression: Expression = {
 // they cannot be further divided into parts
 AtomicExpression: Expression = {
     // just a variable reference
-    <l: @L> <v:"<var>"> <end: @L> => Expression::Reference(Location::new(file_idx, l..end), v.to_string()),
+    <l: @L> <v:"<var>"> <end: @L> => Expression::Reference(Name::new(v.to_string(), Location::new(file_idx, l..end))),
     // just a number
     <l: @L> <n:"<num>"> <end: @L> => Expression::Value(Location::new(file_idx, l..end), Value::Number(n.0, n.1, n.2)),
+    // this expression could actually be a block!
+    <s:@L> "{" <exprs:Expressions> ";"? "}" <e:@L> => Expression::Block(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), exprs),
+    <s:@L> "{" "}" <e:@L> => Expression::Block(Location::new(file_idx, s..e), vec![]),
     // finally, let people parenthesize expressions and get back to a
     // lower precedence
     "(" <e:Expression> ")" => e,
 }
+
+Expressions: Vec<Expression> = {
+    <e:Expression> => vec![e],
+    <mut exps:Expressions> ";" <e:Expression> => {
+        exps.push(e);
+        exps
+    }
+}
+
+// Lifted from the LALRPop book, a comma-separated list of T that may or
+// may not conclude with a comma.
+Comma<T>: Vec<T> = {
+    <mut v:(<T> ",")*> <e:T?> => match e {
+        None => v,
+        Some(e) => {
+            v.push(e);
+            v
+        }
+    }
+};

src/syntax/pretty.rs

@@ -1,90 +1,275 @@
-use crate::syntax::ast::{Expression, Program, Statement, Value};
+use crate::syntax::ast::{ConstantType, Expression, Program, TopLevel, Type, Value};
-use pretty::{DocAllocator, DocBuilder, Pretty};
+use crate::util::pretty::{derived_display, Allocator};
+use pretty::{DocAllocator, DocBuilder};
 
-use super::ConstantType;
+impl Program {
-
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Program
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
         let mut result = allocator.nil();
 
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
+        for definition in self.structures.values() {
+            let mut interior = allocator.nil();
+
+            for (name, ty) in definition.fields.iter() {
+                let mut type_bit = allocator.nil();
+
+                if let Some(ty) = ty {
+                    type_bit = allocator
+                        .text(":")
+                        .append(allocator.space())
+                        .append(ty.pretty(allocator));
+                }
+
+                interior = interior
+                    .append(name.original_name().to_string())
+                    .append(type_bit)
+                    .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                    .append(allocator.hardline());
+            }
+
+            interior = interior.indent(9);
+
+            let start = allocator
+                .text("struct")
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text(definition.name.original_name().to_string()))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text("{"));
+
+            let conclusion = allocator.text("}").append(allocator.hardline());
+
+            result = result.append(start.append(interior).append(conclusion));
+        }
+
+        for definition in self.functions.values() {
+            let mut return_type_bit = allocator.nil();
+
+            if let Some(rettype) = definition.return_type.as_ref() {
+                return_type_bit = allocator
+                    .text("->")
+                    .append(allocator.space())
+                    .append(rettype.pretty(allocator));
+            }
+
             result = result
+                .append(allocator.text("function"))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text(definition.name.original_name().to_string()))
+                .append(allocator.text("("))
+                .append(allocator.intersperse(
+                    definition.arguments.iter().map(|(x, t)| {
+                        let mut type_bit = allocator.nil();
+
+                        if let Some(ty) = t {
+                            type_bit = allocator
+                                .text(":")
+                                .append(allocator.space())
+                                .append(ty.pretty(allocator));
+                        }
+
+                        allocator
+                            .text(x.original_name().to_string())
+                            .append(type_bit)
+                    }),
+                    allocator.text(","),
+                ))
+                .append(allocator.text(")"))
+                .append(return_type_bit)
+                .append(allocator.softline())
+                .append(definition.body.pretty(allocator))
+                .append(allocator.hardline());
+        }
+
+        result.append(self.body.pretty(allocator))
+    }
+}
+
+impl TopLevel {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            TopLevel::Expression(expr) => expr
+                .pretty(allocator)
+                .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                .append(allocator.hardline()),
+            TopLevel::Structure(_, name, fields) => allocator
+                .text("struct")
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text(name.to_string()))
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text("{"))
+                .append(allocator.hardline())
+                .append(
+                    allocator
+                        .concat(fields.iter().map(|(name, ty)| {
+                            let type_bit = if let Some(ty) = ty {
+                                allocator
+                                    .text(":")
+                                    .append(allocator.space())
+                                    .append(ty.pretty(allocator))
+                            } else {
+                                allocator.nil()
+                            };
+                            allocator
+                                .text(name.to_string())
+                                .append(type_bit)
+                                .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                                .append(allocator.hardline())
+                        }))
+                        .indent(2),
+                )
+                .append(allocator.text("}"))
+                .append(allocator.hardline()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Expression {
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Value(_, val) => val.pretty(allocator),
+            Expression::Constructor(_, name, fields) => allocator
+                .text(name.to_string())
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.text("{"))
+                .append(allocator.hardline())
+                .append(
+                    allocator
+                        .concat(fields.iter().map(|(n, e)| {
+                            allocator
+                                .text(n.to_string())
+                                .append(allocator.text(":"))
+                                .append(allocator.space())
+                                .append(e.pretty(allocator))
+                                .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                                .append(allocator.hardline())
+                        }))
+                        .indent(2),
+                )
+                .append(allocator.text("}")),
+            Expression::Reference(var) => allocator.text(var.to_string()),
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, val, field) => val
+                .pretty(allocator)
+                .append(allocator.text("."))
+                .append(allocator.text(field.to_string())),
+            Expression::Cast(_, t, e) => allocator
+                .text(t.clone())
+                .angles()
+                .append(e.pretty(allocator)),
+            Expression::Primitive(_, op) => allocator.text(op.original_name().to_string()),
+            Expression::Call(_, fun, args) => {
+                let mut args = args.iter().map(|x| x.pretty(allocator)).collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                match fun.as_ref() {
+                    Expression::Primitive(_, name)
+                        if ["/", "*", "+", "-"].contains(&name.current_name())
+                            && args.len() == 2 =>
+                    {
+                        let second = args.pop().unwrap();
+                        args.pop()
+                            .unwrap()
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(allocator.text(name.current_name().to_string()))
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(second)
+                            .parens()
+                    }
+
+                    Expression::Primitive(_, name)
+                        if ["negate"].contains(&name.current_name()) && args.len() == 1 =>
+                    {
+                        allocator.text("-").append(args.pop().unwrap())
+                    }
+
+                    Expression::Primitive(_, name)
+                        if ["print"].contains(&&name.current_name()) && args.len() == 1 =>
+                    {
+                        allocator
+                            .text("print")
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(args.pop().unwrap())
+                    }
+
+                    _ => {
+                        let comma_sepped_args = allocator.intersperse(args, allocator.text(","));
+                        fun.pretty(allocator).append(comma_sepped_args.parens())
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Expression::Block(_, stmts) => match stmts.split_last() {
+                None => allocator.text("()"),
+                Some((last, &[])) => last.pretty(allocator),
+                Some((last, start)) => {
+                    let beginning = allocator.text("{").append(allocator.hardline());
+                    let mut inner = allocator.nil();
+
+                    for stmt in start.iter() {
+                        inner = inner
                             .append(stmt.pretty(allocator))
                             .append(allocator.text(";"))
                             .append(allocator.hardline());
                     }
 
-        result
+                    inner = inner
-    }
+                        .append(last.pretty(allocator))
-}
+                        .append(allocator.hardline());
 
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Statement
+                    inner = inner.indent(2);
-where
+
-    A: 'a,
+                    beginning.append(inner).append(allocator.text("}"))
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
+                }
-{
+            },
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
+            Expression::Binding(_, var, expr) => allocator
-        match self {
-            Statement::Binding(_, var, expr) => allocator
                 .text(var.to_string())
                 .append(allocator.space())
                 .append(allocator.text("="))
                 .append(allocator.space())
                 .append(expr.pretty(allocator)),
-            Statement::Print(_, var) => allocator
+            Expression::Function(_, name, args, rettype, body) => allocator
-                .text("print")
+                .text("function")
                 .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(allocator.text(var.to_string())),
+                .append(
-        }
+                    name.as_ref()
-    }
+                        .map(|x| allocator.text(x.to_string()))
-}
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| allocator.nil()),
-
+                )
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Expression
+                .append(
-where
+                    allocator
-    A: 'a,
+                        .intersperse(
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
+                            args.iter().map(|(x, t)| {
-{
+                                allocator.text(x.to_string()).append(
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
+                                    t.as_ref()
-        match self {
+                                        .map(|t| {
-            Expression::Value(_, val) => val.pretty(allocator),
+                                            allocator
-            Expression::Reference(_, var) => allocator.text(var.to_string()),
+                                                .text(":")
-            Expression::Cast(_, t, e) => allocator
-                .text(t.clone())
-                .angles()
-                .append(e.pretty(allocator)),
-            Expression::Primitive(_, op, exprs) if exprs.len() == 1 => allocator
-                .text(op.to_string())
-                .append(exprs[0].pretty(allocator)),
-            Expression::Primitive(_, op, exprs) if exprs.len() == 2 => {
-                let left = exprs[0].pretty(allocator);
-                let right = exprs[1].pretty(allocator);
-
-                left.append(allocator.space())
-                    .append(allocator.text(op.to_string()))
                                                 .append(allocator.space())
-                    .append(right)
+                                                .append(t.pretty(allocator))
-                    .parens()
+                                        })
-            }
+                                        .unwrap_or_else(|| allocator.nil()),
-            Expression::Primitive(_, op, exprs) => {
+                                )
-                let call = allocator.text(op.to_string());
+                            }),
-                let args = exprs.iter().map(|x| x.pretty(allocator));
+                            allocator.text(","),
-                let comma_sepped_args = allocator.intersperse(args, CommaSep {});
+                        )
-                call.append(comma_sepped_args.parens())
+                        .parens(),
-            }
+                )
+                .append(
+                    rettype
+                        .as_ref()
+                        .map(|rettype| {
+                            allocator
+                                .space()
+                                .append(allocator.text("->"))
+                                .append(allocator.space())
+                                .append(rettype.pretty(allocator))
+                        })
+                        .unwrap_or_else(|| allocator.nil()),
+                )
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(body.pretty(allocator)),
         }
     }
 }
 
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Value
+impl Value {
-where
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
         match self {
             Value::Number(opt_base, ty, value) => {
                 let value_str = match opt_base {
@@ -98,6 +283,8 @@ where
 
                 allocator.text(value_str)
             }
+
+            Value::Void => allocator.text("void()"),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -105,6 +292,7 @@ where
 fn type_suffix(x: &Option<ConstantType>) -> &'static str {
     match x {
         None => "",
+        Some(ConstantType::Void) => panic!("Should never get a void type suffix."),
         Some(ConstantType::I8) => "i8",
         Some(ConstantType::I16) => "i16",
         Some(ConstantType::I32) => "i32",
@@ -116,15 +304,33 @@ fn type_suffix(x: &Option<ConstantType>) -> &'static str {
     }
 }
 
-#[derive(Clone, Copy)]
+impl Type {
-struct CommaSep {}
+    pub fn pretty<'a>(&self, allocator: &'a Allocator<'a>) -> DocBuilder<'a, Allocator<'a>> {
+        match self {
+            Type::Named(x) => allocator.text(x.to_string()),
+            Type::Struct(fields) => allocator
+                .text("struct")
+                .append(allocator.space())
+                .append(allocator.intersperse(
+                    fields.iter().map(|(name, ty)| {
+                        allocator
+                            .text(name.to_string())
+                            .append(allocator.text(":"))
+                            .append(allocator.space())
+                            .append(
+                                ty.as_ref()
+                                    .map(|x| x.pretty(allocator))
+                                    .unwrap_or_else(|| allocator.text("_")),
+                            )
+                            .append(allocator.text(";"))
+                    }),
+                    allocator.hardline(),
+                ).braces())
+        }
+    }
+}
 
-impl<'a, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for CommaSep
+derived_display!(Program);
-where
+derived_display!(TopLevel);
-    A: 'a,
+derived_display!(Expression);
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
+derived_display!(Value);
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        allocator.text(",").append(allocator.space())
-    }
-}

src/syntax/replace_references.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+use super::{Expression, Name};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+impl Expression {
+    /// Replace all references in the given map to their alternative expression values
+    pub fn replace_references(&mut self, map: &mut HashMap<Name, Expression>) {
+        match self {
+            Expression::Value(_, _) => {}
+            Expression::Constructor(_, _, items) => {
+                for (_, item) in items.iter_mut() {
+                    item.replace_references(map);
+                }
+            }
+            Expression::Reference(name) => match map.get(name) {
+                None => {}
+                Some(x) => *self = x.clone(),
+            },
+            Expression::FieldRef(_, subexp, _) => {
+                subexp.replace_references(map);
+            }
+            Expression::Cast(_, _, subexp) => {
+                subexp.replace_references(map);
+            }
+            Expression::Primitive(_, _) => {}
+            Expression::Call(_, fun, args) => {
+                fun.replace_references(map);
+                for arg in args.iter_mut() {
+                    arg.replace_references(map);
+                }
+            }
+            Expression::Block(_, exprs) => {
+                for expr in exprs.iter_mut() {
+                    expr.replace_references(map);
+                }
+            }
+            Expression::Binding(_, n, expr) => {
+                expr.replace_references(map);
+                map.remove(n);
+            }
+            Expression::Function(_, mname, args, _, body) => {
+                if let Some(name) = mname {
+                    map.remove(name);
+                }
+                for (arg_name, _) in args.iter() {
+                    map.remove(arg_name);
+                }
+                body.replace_references(map);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}

src/syntax/tokens.rs

@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 use internment::ArcIntern;
 use logos::{Lexer, Logos};
-use std::fmt;
+use std::{fmt, str::FromStr};
-use std::num::ParseIntError;
 use thiserror::Error;
 
 /// A single token of the input stream; used to help the parsing go down
@@ -26,14 +25,29 @@ use thiserror::Error;
 /// trait, you should get back the exact same token.
 #[derive(Logos, Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub enum Token {
+    // we're actually just going to skip whitespace, though
+    #[regex(r"[ \t\r\n\f]+", logos::skip)]
+    // this is an extremely simple version of comments, just line
+    // comments. More complicated /* */ comments can be harder to
+    // implement, and didn't seem worth it at the time.
+    #[regex(r"//.*", logos::skip)]
     // Our first set of tokens are simple characters that we're
     // going to use to structure NGR programs.
     #[token("=")]
     Equals,
 
+    #[token(":")]
+    Colon,
+
     #[token(";")]
     Semi,
 
+    #[token(",")]
+    Comma,
+
+    #[token(".")]
+    Dot,
+
     #[token("(")]
     LeftParen,
 
@@ -46,6 +60,26 @@ pub enum Token {
     #[token(">")]
     GreaterThan,
 
+    #[token("_")]
+    Underscore,
+
+    #[token("{")]
+    OpenBrace,
+
+    #[token("}")]
+    CloseBrace,
+
+    #[token("->")]
+    SingleArrow,
+
+    #[token("λ")]
+    #[token("lambda")]
+    #[token("function")]
+    Function,
+
+    #[token("struct")]
+    Struct,
+
     // Next we take of any reserved words; I always like to put
     // these before we start recognizing more complicated regular
     // expressions. I don't think it matters, but it works for me.
@@ -54,7 +88,7 @@ pub enum Token {
 
     // Next are the operators for NGR. We only have 4, now, but
     // we might extend these later, or even make them user-definable!
-    #[regex(r"[+\-*/]", |v| v.slice().chars().next())]
+    #[regex(r"[+\-*/÷]", |v| v.slice().chars().next())]
     Operator(char),
 
     /// Numbers capture both the value we read from the input,
@@ -75,28 +109,30 @@ pub enum Token {
     #[regex(r"[a-z][a-zA-Z0-9_]*", |v| ArcIntern::new(v.slice().to_string()))]
     Variable(ArcIntern<String>),
 
-    // the next token will be an error token
+    // Type names; these are like variables, but must start with a capital
-    #[error]
+    // letter.
-    // we're actually just going to skip whitespace, though
+    #[regex(r"[A-Z][a-zA-Z0-9_]*", |v| ArcIntern::new(v.slice().to_string()))]
-    #[regex(r"[ \t\r\n\f]+", logos::skip)]
+    TypeName(ArcIntern<String>),
-    // this is an extremely simple version of comments, just line
-    // comments. More complicated /* */ comments can be harder to
-    // implement, and didn't seem worth it at the time.
-    #[regex(r"//.*", logos::skip)]
-    /// This token represents that some core error happened in lexing;
-    /// possibly that something didn't match anything at all.
-    Error,
 }
 
 impl fmt::Display for Token {
     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
         match self {
             Token::Equals => write!(f, "'='"),
+            Token::Colon => write!(f, "':'"),
             Token::Semi => write!(f, "';'"),
+            Token::Comma => write!(f, "','"),
+            Token::Dot => write!(f, "'.'"),
             Token::LeftParen => write!(f, "'('"),
             Token::RightParen => write!(f, "')'"),
             Token::LessThan => write!(f, "<"),
             Token::GreaterThan => write!(f, ">"),
+            Token::Underscore => write!(f, "_"),
+            Token::OpenBrace => write!(f, "{{"),
+            Token::CloseBrace => write!(f, "}}"),
+            Token::SingleArrow => write!(f, "->"),
+            Token::Function => write!(f, "function"),
+            Token::Struct => write!(f, "struct"),
             Token::Print => write!(f, "'print'"),
             Token::Operator(c) => write!(f, "'{}'", c),
             Token::Number((None, otype, v)) => write!(f, "'{}{}'", v, display_optional_type(otype)),
@@ -120,7 +156,7 @@ impl fmt::Display for Token {
                 )
             }
             Token::Variable(s) => write!(f, "'{}'", s),
-            Token::Error => write!(f, "<error>"),
+            Token::TypeName(s) => write!(f, "'{}'", s),
         }
     }
 }
@@ -154,11 +190,13 @@ pub enum ConstantType {
     I16 = 21,
     I32 = 22,
     I64 = 23,
+    Void = 255,
 }
 
 impl From<ConstantType> for cranelift_codegen::ir::Type {
     fn from(value: ConstantType) -> Self {
         match value {
+            ConstantType::Void => cranelift_codegen::ir::types::I64,
             ConstantType::I8 | ConstantType::U8 => cranelift_codegen::ir::types::I8,
             ConstantType::I16 | ConstantType::U16 => cranelift_codegen::ir::types::I16,
             ConstantType::I32 | ConstantType::U32 => cranelift_codegen::ir::types::I32,
@@ -167,18 +205,48 @@ impl From<ConstantType> for cranelift_codegen::ir::Type {
     }
 }
 
-impl ConstantType {
+pub struct StringNotConstantType();
-    /// Returns true if the given type is (a) numeric and (b) signed;
+
-    pub fn is_signed(&self) -> bool {
+impl FromStr for ConstantType {
-        matches!(
+    type Err = StringNotConstantType;
-            self,
+
-            ConstantType::I8 | ConstantType::I16 | ConstantType::I32 | ConstantType::I64
+    fn from_str(s: &str) -> Result<Self, Self::Err> {
-        )
+        match s {
+            "i8" => Ok(ConstantType::I8),
+            "i16" => Ok(ConstantType::I16),
+            "i32" => Ok(ConstantType::I32),
+            "i64" => Ok(ConstantType::I64),
+            "u8" => Ok(ConstantType::U8),
+            "u16" => Ok(ConstantType::U16),
+            "u32" => Ok(ConstantType::U32),
+            "u64" => Ok(ConstantType::U64),
+            "void" => Ok(ConstantType::Void),
+            _ => Err(StringNotConstantType()),
+        }
+    }
 }
 
+impl fmt::Display for ConstantType {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            ConstantType::I8 => write!(f, "i8"),
+            ConstantType::I16 => write!(f, "i16"),
+            ConstantType::I32 => write!(f, "i32"),
+            ConstantType::I64 => write!(f, "i64"),
+            ConstantType::U8 => write!(f, "u8"),
+            ConstantType::U16 => write!(f, "u16"),
+            ConstantType::U32 => write!(f, "u32"),
+            ConstantType::U64 => write!(f, "u64"),
+            ConstantType::Void => write!(f, "void"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ConstantType {
     /// Return the set of types that can be safely casted into this type.
     pub fn safe_casts_to(self) -> Vec<ConstantType> {
         match self {
+            ConstantType::Void => vec![ConstantType::Void],
             ConstantType::I8 => vec![ConstantType::I8],
             ConstantType::I16 => vec![ConstantType::I16, ConstantType::I8, ConstantType::U8],
             ConstantType::I32 => vec![
@@ -226,6 +294,7 @@ impl ConstantType {
     /// Return the name of the given type, as a string
     pub fn name(&self) -> String {
         match self {
+            ConstantType::Void => "void".to_string(),
             ConstantType::I8 => "i8".to_string(),
             ConstantType::I16 => "i16".to_string(),
             ConstantType::I32 => "i32".to_string(),
@@ -236,6 +305,32 @@ impl ConstantType {
             ConstantType::U64 => "u64".to_string(),
         }
     }
+
+    /// Return the set of all primitives that can return this
+    /// type, along with the argument types for those primitives.
+    ///
+    /// A "None" value as an argument type means that the argument
+    /// type is unconstrained by the return type.
+    pub fn primitives_for(&self) -> Vec<(crate::ir::Primitive, Vec<Option<ConstantType>>)> {
+        use crate::ir::Primitive::*;
+
+        match self {
+            ConstantType::Void => vec![(Print, vec![None])],
+            ConstantType::I8 | ConstantType::I16 | ConstantType::I32 | ConstantType::I64 => vec![
+                (Plus, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Minus, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Times, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Divide, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Negate, vec![Some(*self)]),
+            ],
+            ConstantType::U8 | ConstantType::U16 | ConstantType::U32 | ConstantType::U64 => vec![
+                (Plus, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Minus, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Times, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+                (Divide, vec![Some(*self), Some(*self)]),
+            ],
+        }
+    }
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Error, PartialEq)]
@@ -257,6 +352,7 @@ impl TryFrom<i64> for ConstantType {
             21 => Ok(ConstantType::I16),
             22 => Ok(ConstantType::I32),
             23 => Ok(ConstantType::I64),
+            255 => Ok(ConstantType::Void),
             _ => Err(InvalidConstantType::Value(value)),
         }
     }
@@ -269,7 +365,7 @@ impl TryFrom<i64> for ConstantType {
 fn parse_number(
     base: Option<u8>,
     value: &Lexer<Token>,
-) -> Result<(Option<u8>, Option<ConstantType>, u64), ParseIntError> {
+) -> Result<(Option<u8>, Option<ConstantType>, u64), ()> {
     let (radix, strval) = match base {
         None => (10, value.slice()),
         Some(radix) => (radix, &value.slice()[2..]),
@@ -295,13 +391,14 @@ fn parse_number(
         (None, strval)
     };
 
-    let intval = u64::from_str_radix(strval, radix as u32)?;
+    let intval = u64::from_str_radix(strval, radix as u32).map_err(|_| ())?;
     Ok((base, declared_type, intval))
 }
 
 fn display_optional_type(otype: &Option<ConstantType>) -> &'static str {
     match otype {
         None => "",
+        Some(ConstantType::Void) => "void",
         Some(ConstantType::I8) => "i8",
         Some(ConstantType::I16) => "i16",
         Some(ConstantType::I32) => "i32",
@@ -316,18 +413,18 @@ fn display_optional_type(otype: &Option<ConstantType>) -> &'static str {
 #[test]
 fn lex_numbers() {
     let mut lex0 = Token::lexer("12 0b1100 0o14 0d12 0xc 12u8 0xci64// 9");
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Number((None, None, 12))));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Number((None, None, 12)))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Number((Some(2), None, 12))));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Number((Some(2), None, 12)))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Number((Some(8), None, 12))));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Number((Some(8), None, 12)))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Number((Some(10), None, 12))));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Number((Some(10), None, 12)))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Number((Some(16), None, 12))));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Number((Some(16), None, 12)))));
     assert_eq!(
         lex0.next(),
-        Some(Token::Number((None, Some(ConstantType::U8), 12)))
+        Some(Ok(Token::Number((None, Some(ConstantType::U8), 12))))
     );
     assert_eq!(
         lex0.next(),
-        Some(Token::Number((Some(16), Some(ConstantType::I64), 12)))
+        Some(Ok(Token::Number((Some(16), Some(ConstantType::I64), 12))))
     );
     assert_eq!(lex0.next(), None);
 }
@@ -335,46 +432,52 @@ fn lex_numbers() {
 #[test]
 fn lex_symbols() {
     let mut lex0 = Token::lexer("x + \t y * \n z // rest");
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::var("x")));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::var("x"))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Operator('+')));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Operator('+'))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::var("y")));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::var("y"))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::Operator('*')));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::Operator('*'))));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Token::var("z")));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some(Ok(Token::var("z"))));
     assert_eq!(lex0.next(), None);
 }
 
 #[test]
 fn lexer_spans() {
     let mut lex0 = Token::lexer("y = x + 1//foo").spanned();
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::var("y"), 0..1)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::var("y")), 0..1)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Equals, 2..3)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Equals), 2..3)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::var("x"), 4..5)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::var("x")), 4..5)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Operator('+'), 6..7)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Operator('+')), 6..7)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Number((None, None, 1)), 8..9)));
+    assert_eq!(
+        lex0.next(),
+        Some((Ok(Token::Number((None, None, 1))), 8..9))
+    );
     assert_eq!(lex0.next(), None);
 }
 
 #[test]
 fn further_spans() {
     let mut lex0 = Token::lexer("x = 2i64 + 2i64;\ny = -x;\nprint y;").spanned();
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::var("x"), 0..1)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::var("x")), 0..1)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Equals, 2..3)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Equals), 2..3)));
     assert_eq!(
         lex0.next(),
-        Some((Token::Number((None, Some(ConstantType::I64), 2)), 4..8))
+        Some((Ok(Token::Number((None, Some(ConstantType::I64), 2))), 4..8))
     );
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Operator('+'), 9..10)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Operator('+')), 9..10)));
     assert_eq!(
         lex0.next(),
-        Some((Token::Number((None, Some(ConstantType::I64), 2)), 11..15))
+        Some((
+            Ok(Token::Number((None, Some(ConstantType::I64), 2))),
+            11..15
+        ))
     );
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Semi, 15..16)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Semi), 15..16)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::var("y"), 17..18)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::var("y")), 17..18)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Equals, 19..20)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Equals), 19..20)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Operator('-'), 21..22)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Operator('-')), 21..22)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::var("x"), 22..23)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::var("x")), 22..23)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Semi, 23..24)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Semi), 23..24)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Print, 25..30)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Print), 25..30)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::var("y"), 31..32)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::var("y")), 31..32)));
-    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Token::Semi, 32..33)));
+    assert_eq!(lex0.next(), Some((Ok(Token::Semi), 32..33)));
 }

src/syntax/validate.rs

@@ -1,9 +1,12 @@
-use crate::{
+use crate::eval::PrimitiveType;
-    eval::PrimitiveType,
+use crate::syntax::{Expression, Location, Program, StructureDefinition, TopLevel};
-    syntax::{Expression, Location, Program, Statement},
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
-};
+use crate::util::warning_result::WarningResult;
 use codespan_reporting::diagnostic::Diagnostic;
-use std::{collections::HashMap, str::FromStr};
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::str::FromStr;
+
+use super::{FunctionDefinition, Name, Type};
 
 /// An error we found while validating the input program.
 ///
@@ -12,6 +15,7 @@ use std::{collections::HashMap, str::FromStr};
 /// that we're not going to be able to work through. As with most
 /// of these errors, we recommend converting this to a [`Diagnostic`]
 /// and using [`codespan_reporting`] to present them to the user.
+#[derive(Debug)]
 pub enum Error {
     UnboundVariable(Location, String),
     UnknownType(Location, String),
@@ -64,9 +68,9 @@ impl Program {
     /// This checks for things like references to variables that don't exist, for
     /// example, and generates warnings for things that are inadvisable but not
     /// actually a problem.
-    pub fn validate(&self) -> (Vec<Error>, Vec<Warning>) {
+    pub fn validate(raw_syntax: Vec<TopLevel>) -> WarningResult<Program, Warning, Error> {
-        let mut bound_variables = HashMap::new();
+        let mut bound_variables = ScopedMap::new();
-        self.validate_with_bindings(&mut bound_variables)
+        Self::validate_with_bindings(raw_syntax, &mut bound_variables)
     }
 
     /// Validate that the program makes semantic sense, not just syntactic sense.
@@ -75,98 +79,254 @@ impl Program {
     /// example, and generates warnings for things that are inadvisable but not
     /// actually a problem.
     pub fn validate_with_bindings(
-        &self,
+        raw_syntax: Vec<TopLevel>,
-        bound_variables: &mut HashMap<String, Location>,
+        bound_variables: &mut ScopedMap<String, Location>,
-    ) -> (Vec<Error>, Vec<Warning>) {
+    ) -> WarningResult<Program, Warning, Error> {
-        let mut errors = vec![];
+        let mut functions = HashMap::new();
-        let mut warnings = vec![];
+        let mut structures = HashMap::new();
+        let mut result = WarningResult::ok(vec![]);
+        let location = Location::infer_from(&raw_syntax);
 
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
+        for stmt in raw_syntax.into_iter() {
-            let (mut new_errors, mut new_warnings) = stmt.validate(bound_variables);
+            match stmt {
-            errors.append(&mut new_errors);
+                TopLevel::Expression(expr) => {
-            warnings.append(&mut new_warnings);
+                    let expr_result =
+                        expr.validate(bound_variables, &mut structures, &mut functions);
+                    result = result.merge_with(expr_result, |mut previous, current| {
+                        previous.push(current);
+                        Ok(previous)
+                    });
                 }
 
-        (errors, warnings)
+                TopLevel::Structure(loc, name, fields) => {
+                    let definition =
+                        StructureDefinition::new(loc, name.clone(), fields.into_iter().collect());
+
+                    structures.insert(name, definition);
+                }
             }
         }
 
-impl Statement {
+        result.map(move |exprs| Program {
-    /// Validate that the statement makes semantic sense, not just syntactic sense.
+            functions,
-    ///
+            structures,
-    /// This checks for things like references to variables that don't exist, for
+            body: Expression::Block(location, exprs),
-    /// example, and generates warnings for things that are inadvisable but not
+        })
-    /// actually a problem. Since statements appear in a broader context, you'll
+    }
-    /// need to provide the set of variables that are bound where this statement
+}
-    /// occurs. We use a `HashMap` to map these bound locations to the locations
+
-    /// where their bound, because these locations are handy when generating errors
+impl Expression {
-    /// and warnings.
     fn validate(
-        &self,
+        self,
-        bound_variables: &mut HashMap<String, Location>,
+        variable_map: &mut ScopedMap<String, Location>,
-    ) -> (Vec<Error>, Vec<Warning>) {
+        structure_map: &mut HashMap<Name, StructureDefinition>,
-        let mut errors = vec![];
+        function_map: &mut HashMap<Name, FunctionDefinition>,
-        let mut warnings = vec![];
+    ) -> WarningResult<Expression, Warning, Error> {
-
         match self {
-            Statement::Binding(loc, var, val) => {
+            Expression::Value(_, _) => WarningResult::ok(self),
+
+            Expression::Constructor(location, name, fields) => {
+                let mut result = WarningResult::ok(vec![]);
+
+                for (name, expr) in fields.into_iter() {
+                    let expr_result = expr.validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map);
+                    result = result.merge_with(expr_result, move |mut fields, new_expr| {
+                        fields.push((name, new_expr));
+                        Ok(fields)
+                    });
+                }
+
+                result.map(move |fields| Expression::Constructor(location, name, fields))
+            }
+
+            Expression::Reference(ref var)
+                if variable_map.contains_key(&var.original_name().to_string()) =>
+            {
+                WarningResult::ok(self)
+            }
+            Expression::Reference(var) => WarningResult::err(Error::UnboundVariable(
+                var.location().clone(),
+                var.original_name().to_string(),
+            )),
+
+            Expression::FieldRef(location, exp, field) => exp
+                .validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map)
+                .map(|x| Expression::FieldRef(location, Box::new(x), field)),
+
+            Expression::Cast(location, t, expr) => {
+                let mut expr_result = expr.validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map);
+
+                if PrimitiveType::from_str(&t).is_err() {
+                    expr_result.add_error(Error::UnknownType(location.clone(), t.clone()));
+                }
+
+                expr_result.map(|e| Expression::Cast(location, t, Box::new(e)))
+            }
+
+            // FIXME: Check for valid primitives here!!
+            Expression::Primitive(_, _) => WarningResult::ok(self),
+
+            Expression::Call(loc, func, args) => {
+                let mut result = func
+                    .validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map)
+                    .map(|x| (x, vec![]));
+
+                for arg in args.into_iter() {
+                    let expr_result = arg.validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map);
+                    result =
+                        result.merge_with(expr_result, |(func, mut previous_args), new_arg| {
+                            previous_args.push(new_arg);
+                            Ok((func, previous_args))
+                        });
+                }
+
+                result.map(|(func, args)| Expression::Call(loc, Box::new(func), args))
+            }
+
+            Expression::Block(loc, stmts) => {
+                let mut result = WarningResult::ok(vec![]);
+
+                for stmt in stmts.into_iter() {
+                    let stmt_result = stmt.validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map);
+                    result = result.merge_with(stmt_result, |mut stmts, stmt| {
+                        stmts.push(stmt);
+                        Ok(stmts)
+                    });
+                }
+
+                result.map(|stmts| Expression::Block(loc, stmts))
+            }
+
+            Expression::Binding(loc, var, val) => {
                 // we're going to make the decision that a variable is not bound in the right
                 // hand side of its binding, which makes a lot of things easier. So we'll just
                 // immediately check the expression, and go from there.
-                let (mut exp_errors, mut exp_warnings) = val.validate(bound_variables);
+                let mut result = val.validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map);
 
-                errors.append(&mut exp_errors);
+                if let Some(original_binding_site) =
-                warnings.append(&mut exp_warnings);
+                    variable_map.get(&var.original_name().to_string())
-                if let Some(original_binding_site) = bound_variables.get(&var.name) {
+                {
-                    warnings.push(Warning::ShadowedVariable(
+                    result.add_warning(Warning::ShadowedVariable(
                         original_binding_site.clone(),
                         loc.clone(),
                         var.to_string(),
                     ));
                 } else {
-                    bound_variables.insert(var.to_string(), loc.clone());
+                    variable_map.insert(var.to_string(), loc.clone());
+                }
+
+                result.map(|val| Expression::Binding(loc, var, Box::new(val)))
+            }
+
+            Expression::Function(loc, name, mut arguments, return_type, body) => {
+                let mut result = WarningResult::ok(());
+
+                // first we should check for shadowing
+                for new_name in name.iter().chain(arguments.iter().map(|x| &x.0)) {
+                    if let Some(original_site) = variable_map.get(new_name.original_name()) {
+                        result.add_warning(Warning::ShadowedVariable(
+                            original_site.clone(),
+                            loc.clone(),
+                            new_name.original_name().to_string(),
+                        ));
                     }
                 }
 
-            Statement::Print(_, var) if bound_variables.contains_key(&var.name) => {}
+                // the function name is now available in our current scope, if the function was given one
-            Statement::Print(loc, var) => {
+                if let Some(name) = &name {
-                errors.push(Error::UnboundVariable(loc.clone(), var.to_string()))
+                    variable_map.insert(name.original_name().to_string(), name.location().clone());
-            }
                 }
 
-        (errors, warnings)
+                // the arguments are available in a new scope, which we will use to validate the function
-    }
+                // body
+                variable_map.new_scope();
+                for (arg, _) in arguments.iter() {
+                    variable_map.insert(arg.original_name().to_string(), arg.location().clone());
                 }
 
-impl Expression {
+                let body_result = body.validate(variable_map, structure_map, function_map);
-    fn validate(&self, variable_map: &HashMap<String, Location>) -> (Vec<Error>, Vec<Warning>) {
+                variable_map.release_scope();
-        match self {
+
-            Expression::Value(_, _) => (vec![], vec![]),
+                body_result.merge_with(result, move |mut body, _| {
-            Expression::Reference(_, var) if variable_map.contains_key(var) => (vec![], vec![]),
+                    // figure out what, if anything, needs to be in the closure for this function.
-            Expression::Reference(loc, var) => (
+                    let mut free_variables = body.free_variables();
-                vec![Error::UnboundVariable(loc.clone(), var.clone())],
+                    for (n, _) in arguments.iter() {
-                vec![],
+                        free_variables.remove(n);
+                    }
+                    // generate a new name for the closure type we're about to create
+                    let closure_type_name = Name::located_gensym(
+                        loc.clone(),
+                        name.as_ref().map(Name::original_name).unwrap_or("closure_"),
+                    );
+                    // ... and then create a structure type that has all of the free variables
+                    // in it
+                    let closure_type = StructureDefinition::new(
+                        loc.clone(),
+                        closure_type_name.clone(),
+                        free_variables.iter().map(|x| (x.clone(), None)).collect(),
+                    );
+                    // this will become the first argument of the function, so name it and add
+                    // it to the argument list.
+                    let closure_arg = Name::gensym("__closure_arg");
+                    arguments.insert(
+                        0,
+                        (
+                            closure_arg.clone(),
+                            Some(Type::Named(closure_type_name.clone())),
                         ),
-            Expression::Cast(location, t, expr) => {
+                    );
-                let (mut errs, warns) = expr.validate(variable_map);
+                    // Now make a map from the old free variable names to references into
+                    // our closure argument
+                    let rebinds = free_variables
+                        .into_iter()
+                        .map(|n| {
+                            (
+                                n.clone(),
+                                Expression::FieldRef(
+                                    n.location().clone(),
+                                    Box::new(Expression::Reference(closure_arg.clone())),
+                                    n,
+                                ),
+                            )
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Vec<(Name, Expression)>>();
+                    let mut rebind_map = rebinds.iter().cloned().collect();
+                    // and replace all the references in the function with this map
+                    body.replace_references(&mut rebind_map);
+                    // OK! This function definitely needs a name; if the user didn't give
+                    // it one, we'll do so.
+                    let function_name =
+                        name.unwrap_or_else(|| Name::located_gensym(loc.clone(), "function"));
+                    // And finally, we can make the function definition and insert it into our global
+                    // list along with the new closure type.
+                    let function = FunctionDefinition::new(
+                        function_name.clone(),
+                        arguments.clone(),
+                        return_type.clone(),
+                        body,
+                    );
 
-                if PrimitiveType::from_str(t).is_err() {
+                    structure_map.insert(closure_type_name.clone(), closure_type);
-                    errs.push(Error::UnknownType(location.clone(), t.clone()))
+                    function_map.insert(function_name.clone(), function);
-                }
 
-                (errs, warns)
+                    // And the result of this function is a call to a primitive that generates
-            }
+                    // the closure value in some sort of reasonable way.
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, args) => {
+                    Ok(Expression::Call(
-                let mut errors = vec![];
+                        Location::manufactured(),
-                let mut warnings = vec![];
+                        Box::new(Expression::Primitive(
-
+                            Location::manufactured(),
-                for expr in args.iter() {
+                            Name::new("<closure>", Location::manufactured()),
-                    let (mut err, mut warn) = expr.validate(variable_map);
+                        )),
-                    errors.append(&mut err);
+                        vec![
-                    warnings.append(&mut warn);
+                            Expression::Reference(function_name),
-                }
+                            Expression::Constructor(
-
+                                Location::manufactured(),
-                (errors, warnings)
+                                closure_type_name,
+                                rebinds,
+                            ),
+                        ],
+                    ))
+                })
             }
         }
     }
@@ -174,16 +334,19 @@ impl Expression {
 
 #[test]
 fn cast_checks_are_reasonable() {
-    let good_stmt = Statement::parse(0, "x = <u16>4u8;").expect("valid test case");
+    let mut variable_map = ScopedMap::new();
-    let (good_errs, good_warns) = good_stmt.validate(&mut HashMap::new());
+    let mut structure_map = HashMap::new();
+    let mut function_map = HashMap::new();
 
-    assert!(good_errs.is_empty());
+    let good_stmt = Expression::parse(0, "x = <u16>4u8;").expect("valid test case");
-    assert!(good_warns.is_empty());
+    let result_good = good_stmt.validate(&mut variable_map, &mut structure_map, &mut function_map);
 
-    let bad_stmt = Statement::parse(0, "x = <apple>4u8;").expect("valid test case");
+    assert!(result_good.is_ok());
-    let (bad_errs, bad_warns) = bad_stmt.validate(&mut HashMap::new());
+    assert!(result_good.warnings().is_empty());
 
-    assert!(bad_warns.is_empty());
+    let bad_stmt = Expression::parse(0, "x = <apple>4u8;").expect("valid test case");
-    assert_eq!(bad_errs.len(), 1);
+    let result_err = bad_stmt.validate(&mut variable_map, &mut structure_map, &mut function_map);
-    assert!(matches!(bad_errs[0], Error::UnknownType(_, ref x) if x == "apple"));
+
+    assert!(result_err.is_err());
+    assert!(result_err.warnings().is_empty());
 }

src/type_infer.rs

@@ -10,21 +10,32 @@
 //! all the constraints we've generated. If that's successful, in the final phase, we
 //! do the final conversion to the IR AST, filling in any type information we've learned
 //! along the way.
-mod ast;
+mod constraint;
 mod convert;
+mod error;
 mod finalize;
+mod result;
 mod solve;
+mod warning;
 
-use self::convert::convert_program;
+use self::constraint::Constraint;
-use self::finalize::finalize_program;
+use self::error::TypeInferenceError;
-use self::solve::solve_constraints;
+pub use self::result::TypeInferenceResult;
-pub use self::solve::{TypeInferenceError, TypeInferenceResult, TypeInferenceWarning};
+use self::warning::TypeInferenceWarning;
 use crate::ir::ast as ir;
 use crate::syntax;
-#[cfg(test)]
+use crate::syntax::Name;
-use crate::syntax::arbitrary::GenerationEnvironment;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
-#[cfg(test)]
+
-use proptest::prelude::Arbitrary;
+struct InferenceEngine {
+    constraints: Vec<Constraint>,
+    type_definitions: HashMap<Name, ir::TypeOrVar>,
+    variable_types: HashMap<Name, ir::TypeOrVar>,
+    functions: HashMap<Name, ir::FunctionDefinition<ir::TypeOrVar>>,
+    body: ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>,
+    errors: Vec<TypeInferenceError>,
+    warnings: Vec<TypeInferenceWarning>,
+}
 
 impl syntax::Program {
     /// Infer the types for the syntactic AST, returning either a type-checked program in
@@ -32,21 +43,53 @@ impl syntax::Program {
     ///
     /// You really should have made sure that this program was validated before running
     /// this method, otherwise you may experience panics during operation.
-    pub fn type_infer(self) -> TypeInferenceResult<ir::Program> {
+    pub fn type_infer(self) -> TypeInferenceResult<ir::Program<ir::Type>> {
-        let mut constraint_db = vec![];
+        let mut engine = InferenceEngine::from(self);
-        let program = convert_program(self, &mut constraint_db);
+        engine.solve_constraints();
-        let inference_result = solve_constraints(constraint_db);
 
-        inference_result.map(|resolutions| finalize_program(program, &resolutions))
+        if engine.errors.is_empty() {
+            let resolutions = std::mem::take(&mut engine.constraints)
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|constraint| match constraint {
+                    Constraint::Equivalent(_, ir::TypeOrVar::Variable(_, name), result) => {
+                        match result.try_into() {
+                            Err(e) => panic!("Ended up with complex type {}", e),
+                            Ok(v) => (name, v),
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => panic!("Had something that wasn't an equivalence left at the end!"),
+                })
+                .collect();
+            let warnings = std::mem::take(&mut engine.warnings);
+
+            TypeInferenceResult::Success {
+                result: engine.finalize_program(resolutions),
+                warnings,
+            }
+        } else {
+            TypeInferenceResult::Failure {
+                errors: engine.errors,
+                warnings: engine.warnings,
+            }
+        }
     }
 }
 
 proptest::proptest! {
     #[test]
-    fn translation_maintains_semantics(input in syntax::Program::arbitrary_with(GenerationEnvironment::new(false))) {
+    fn translation_maintains_semantics(input in syntax::arbitrary::ProgramGenerator::default()) {
-        let syntax_result = input.eval();
+        let input_program = syntax::Program::validate(input).into_result().expect("can validate random program");
-        let ir = input.type_infer().expect("arbitrary should generate type-safe programs");
+        let syntax_result = input_program.eval().map(|(x,o)| (x.strip(), o));
-        let ir_result = ir.eval();
+        let ir = input_program.type_infer().expect("arbitrary should generate type-safe programs");
-        proptest::prop_assert_eq!(syntax_result, ir_result);
+        let ir_evaluator = crate::ir::Evaluator::<crate::ir::Type>::default();
+        let ir_result = ir_evaluator.eval(ir).map(|(x, o)| (x.strip(), o));
+        match (syntax_result, ir_result) {
+            (Err(e1), Err(e2)) => proptest::prop_assert_eq!(e1, e2),
+            (Ok((v1, o1)), Ok((v2, o2))) => {
+                proptest::prop_assert_eq!(v1, v2);
+                proptest::prop_assert_eq!(o1, o2);
+            }
+            _ => proptest::prop_assert!(false),
+        }
     }
 }

src/type_infer/ast.rs

@@ -1,336 +0,0 @@
-pub use crate::ir::ast::Primitive;
-/// This is largely a copy of `ir/ast`, with a couple of extensions that we're going
-/// to want to use while we're doing type inference, but don't want to keep around
-/// afterwards. These are:
-///
-///   * A notion of a type variable
-///   * An unknown numeric constant form
-///
-use crate::{
-    eval::PrimitiveType,
-    syntax::{self, ConstantType, Location},
-};
-use internment::ArcIntern;
-use pretty::{DocAllocator, Pretty};
-use std::fmt;
-use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;
-
-/// We're going to represent variables as interned strings.
-///
-/// These should be fast enough for comparison that it's OK, since it's going to end up
-/// being pretty much the pointer to the string.
-type Variable = ArcIntern<String>;
-
-/// The representation of a program within our IR. For now, this is exactly one file.
-///
-/// In addition, for the moment there's not really much of interest to hold here besides
-/// the list of statements read from the file. Order is important. In the future, you
-/// could imagine caching analysis information in this structure.
-///
-/// `Program` implements both [`Pretty`] and [`Arbitrary`]. The former should be used
-/// to print the structure whenever possible, especially if you value your or your
-/// user's time. The latter is useful for testing that conversions of `Program` retain
-/// their meaning. All `Program`s generated through [`Arbitrary`] are guaranteed to be
-/// syntactically valid, although they may contain runtime issue like over- or underflow.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub struct Program {
-    // For now, a program is just a vector of statements. In the future, we'll probably
-    // extend this to include a bunch of other information, but for now: just a list.
-    pub(crate) statements: Vec<Statement>,
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Program
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        let mut result = allocator.nil();
-
-        for stmt in self.statements.iter() {
-            // there's probably a better way to do this, rather than constantly
-            // adding to the end, but this works.
-            result = result
-                .append(stmt.pretty(allocator))
-                .append(allocator.text(";"))
-                .append(allocator.hardline());
-        }
-
-        result
-    }
-}
-
-/// The representation of a statement in the language.
-///
-/// For now, this is either a binding site (`x = 4`) or a print statement
-/// (`print x`). Someday, though, more!
-///
-/// As with `Program`, this type implements [`Pretty`], which should
-/// be used to display the structure whenever possible. It does not
-/// implement [`Arbitrary`], though, mostly because it's slightly
-/// complicated to do so.
-///
-#[derive(Debug)]
-pub enum Statement {
-    Binding(Location, Variable, Type, Expression),
-    Print(Location, Type, Variable),
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Statement
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        match self {
-            Statement::Binding(_, var, _, expr) => allocator
-                .text(var.as_ref().to_string())
-                .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(allocator.text("="))
-                .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(expr.pretty(allocator)),
-            Statement::Print(_, _, var) => allocator
-                .text("print")
-                .append(allocator.space())
-                .append(allocator.text(var.as_ref().to_string())),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// The representation of an expression.
-///
-/// Note that expressions, like everything else in this syntax tree,
-/// supports [`Pretty`], and it's strongly encouraged that you use
-/// that trait/module when printing these structures.
-///
-/// Also, Expressions at this point in the compiler are explicitly
-/// defined so that they are *not* recursive. By this point, if an
-/// expression requires some other data (like, for example, invoking
-/// a primitive), any subexpressions have been bound to variables so
-/// that the referenced data will always either be a constant or a
-/// variable reference.
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
-pub enum Expression {
-    Atomic(ValueOrRef),
-    Cast(Location, Type, ValueOrRef),
-    Primitive(Location, Type, Primitive, Vec<ValueOrRef>),
-}
-
-impl Expression {
-    /// Return a reference to the type of the expression, as inferred or recently
-    /// computed.
-    pub fn type_of(&self) -> &Type {
-        match self {
-            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Ref(_, t, _)) => t,
-            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Value(_, t, _)) => t,
-            Expression::Cast(_, t, _) => t,
-            Expression::Primitive(_, t, _, _) => t,
-        }
-    }
-
-    /// Return a reference to the location associated with the expression.
-    pub fn location(&self) -> &Location {
-        match self {
-            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Ref(l, _, _)) => l,
-            Expression::Atomic(ValueOrRef::Value(l, _, _)) => l,
-            Expression::Cast(l, _, _) => l,
-            Expression::Primitive(l, _, _, _) => l,
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Expression
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        match self {
-            Expression::Atomic(x) => x.pretty(allocator),
-            Expression::Cast(_, t, e) => allocator
-                .text("<")
-                .append(t.pretty(allocator))
-                .append(allocator.text(">"))
-                .append(e.pretty(allocator)),
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, exprs) if exprs.len() == 1 => {
-                op.pretty(allocator).append(exprs[0].pretty(allocator))
-            }
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, exprs) if exprs.len() == 2 => {
-                let left = exprs[0].pretty(allocator);
-                let right = exprs[1].pretty(allocator);
-
-                left.append(allocator.space())
-                    .append(op.pretty(allocator))
-                    .append(allocator.space())
-                    .append(right)
-                    .parens()
-            }
-            Expression::Primitive(_, _, op, exprs) => {
-                allocator.text(format!("!!{:?} with {} arguments!!", op, exprs.len()))
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// An expression that is always either a value or a reference.
-///
-/// This is the type used to guarantee that we don't nest expressions
-/// at this level. Instead, expressions that take arguments take one
-/// of these, which can only be a constant or a reference.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
-pub enum ValueOrRef {
-    Value(Location, Type, Value),
-    Ref(Location, Type, ArcIntern<String>),
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b ValueOrRef
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        match self {
-            ValueOrRef::Value(_, _, v) => v.pretty(allocator),
-            ValueOrRef::Ref(_, _, v) => allocator.text(v.as_ref().to_string()),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl From<ValueOrRef> for Expression {
-    fn from(value: ValueOrRef) -> Self {
-        Expression::Atomic(value)
-    }
-}
-
-/// A constant in the IR.
-///
-/// The optional argument in numeric types is the base that was used by the
-/// user to input the number. By retaining it, we can ensure that if we need
-/// to print the number back out, we can do so in the form that the user
-/// entered it.
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq)]
-pub enum Value {
-    Unknown(Option<u8>, u64),
-    I8(Option<u8>, i8),
-    I16(Option<u8>, i16),
-    I32(Option<u8>, i32),
-    I64(Option<u8>, i64),
-    U8(Option<u8>, u8),
-    U16(Option<u8>, u16),
-    U32(Option<u8>, u32),
-    U64(Option<u8>, u64),
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Value
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        let pretty_internal = |opt_base: &Option<u8>, x, t| {
-            syntax::Value::Number(*opt_base, Some(t), x).pretty(allocator)
-        };
-
-        let pretty_internal_signed = |opt_base, x: i64, t| {
-            let base = pretty_internal(opt_base, x.unsigned_abs(), t);
-
-            allocator.text("-").append(base)
-        };
-
-        match self {
-            Value::Unknown(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::U64)
-            }
-            Value::I8(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I8)
-            }
-            Value::I16(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I16)
-            }
-            Value::I32(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value as i64, ConstantType::I32)
-            }
-            Value::I64(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal_signed(opt_base, *value, ConstantType::I64)
-            }
-            Value::U8(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U8)
-            }
-            Value::U16(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U16)
-            }
-            Value::U32(opt_base, value) => {
-                pretty_internal(opt_base, *value as u64, ConstantType::U32)
-            }
-            Value::U64(opt_base, value) => pretty_internal(opt_base, *value, ConstantType::U64),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, PartialEq)]
-pub enum Type {
-    Variable(Location, ArcIntern<String>),
-    Primitive(PrimitiveType),
-}
-
-impl Type {
-    pub fn is_concrete(&self) -> bool {
-        !matches!(self, Type::Variable(_, _))
-    }
-}
-
-impl<'a, 'b, D, A> Pretty<'a, D, A> for &'b Type
-where
-    A: 'a,
-    D: ?Sized + DocAllocator<'a, A>,
-{
-    fn pretty(self, allocator: &'a D) -> pretty::DocBuilder<'a, D, A> {
-        match self {
-            Type::Variable(_, x) => allocator.text(x.to_string()),
-            Type::Primitive(pt) => allocator.text(format!("{}", pt)),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-impl fmt::Display for Type {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        match self {
-            Type::Variable(_, x) => write!(f, "{}", x),
-            Type::Primitive(pt) => pt.fmt(f),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-/// Generate a fresh new name based on the given name.
-///
-/// The new name is guaranteed to be unique across the entirety of the
-/// execution. This is achieved by using characters in the variable name
-/// that would not be valid input, and by including a counter that is
-/// incremented on every invocation.
-pub fn gensym(name: &str) -> ArcIntern<String> {
-    static COUNTER: AtomicUsize = AtomicUsize::new(0);
-
-    let new_name = format!(
-        "<{}:{}>",
-        name,
-        COUNTER.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst)
-    );
-    ArcIntern::new(new_name)
-}
-
-/// Generate a fresh new type; this will be a unique new type variable.
-///
-/// The new name is guaranteed to be unique across the entirety of the
-/// execution. This is achieved by using characters in the variable name
-/// that would not be valid input, and by including a counter that is
-/// incremented on every invocation.
-pub fn gentype() -> Type {
-    static COUNTER: AtomicUsize = AtomicUsize::new(0);
-
-    let name = ArcIntern::new(format!(
-        "t<{}>",
-        COUNTER.fetch_add(1, std::sync::atomic::Ordering::SeqCst)
-    ));
-
-    Type::Variable(Location::manufactured(), name)
-}

src/type_infer/constraint.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+use crate::ir::TypeOrVar;
+use crate::syntax::{Location, Name};
+use std::fmt;
+
+/// A type inference constraint that we're going to need to solve.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum Constraint {
+    /// The given type must be printable using the `print` built-in
+    Printable(Location, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The provided numeric value fits in the given constant type
+    FitsInNumType(Location, TypeOrVar, u64),
+    /// The given type can be casted to the target type safely
+    CanCastTo(Location, TypeOrVar, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The given type has the given field in it, and the type of that field
+    /// is as given.
+    TypeHasField(Location, TypeOrVar, Name, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The given type must be some numeric type, but this is not a constant
+    /// value, so don't try to default it if we can't figure it out
+    NumericType(Location, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The given type is attached to a constant and must be some numeric type.
+    /// If we can't figure it out, we should warn the user and then just use a
+    /// default.
+    ConstantNumericType(Location, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The two types should be equivalent
+    Equivalent(Location, TypeOrVar, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The given type can be resolved to something
+    IsSomething(Location, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The given type can be negated
+    IsSigned(Location, TypeOrVar),
+    /// Checks to see if the given named type is equivalent to the provided one.
+    NamedTypeIs(Location, Name, TypeOrVar),
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for Constraint {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            Constraint::Printable(_, ty) => write!(f, "PRINTABLE {}", ty),
+            Constraint::FitsInNumType(_, ty, num) => write!(f, "FITS_IN {} {}", num, ty),
+            Constraint::CanCastTo(_, ty, ty2) => write!(f, "CAST {} -> {}", ty, ty2),
+            Constraint::TypeHasField(_, ty1, field, ty2) => {
+                write!(f, "FIELD {}.{} -> {}", ty1, field, ty2)
+            }
+            Constraint::NumericType(_, ty) => write!(f, "NUMERIC {}", ty),
+            Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, ty) => write!(f, "CONST_NUMERIC {}", ty),
+            Constraint::Equivalent(_, ty, ty2) => write!(f, "EQUIVALENT {} => {}", ty, ty2),
+            Constraint::IsSomething(_, ty) => write!(f, "SOMETHING {}", ty),
+            Constraint::IsSigned(_, ty) => write!(f, "SIGNED {}", ty),
+            Constraint::NamedTypeIs(_, name, ty) => write!(f, "TYPE_EQUIV {} == {}", name, ty),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Constraint {
+    /// Replace all instances of the name (anywhere! including on the left hand side of equivalences!)
+    /// with the given type.
+    ///
+    /// Returns whether or not anything was changed in the constraint.
+    pub fn replace(&mut self, name: &Name, replace_with: &TypeOrVar) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            Constraint::Printable(_, ty) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+            Constraint::FitsInNumType(_, ty, _) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+            Constraint::CanCastTo(_, ty1, ty2) => {
+                ty1.replace(name, replace_with) || ty2.replace(name, replace_with)
+            }
+            Constraint::TypeHasField(_, ty1, _, ty2) => {
+                ty1.replace(name, replace_with) || ty2.replace(name, replace_with)
+            }
+            Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, ty) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+            Constraint::Equivalent(_, ty1, ty2) => {
+                ty1.replace(name, replace_with) || ty2.replace(name, replace_with)
+            }
+            Constraint::IsSigned(_, ty) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+            Constraint::IsSomething(_, ty) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+            Constraint::NumericType(_, ty) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+            Constraint::NamedTypeIs(_, name, ty) => ty.replace(name, replace_with),
+        }
+    }
+}

src/type_infer/convert.rs

@@ -1,92 +1,109 @@
-use super::ast as ir;
+use super::constraint::Constraint;
-use super::ast::Type;
+use super::InferenceEngine;
 use crate::eval::PrimitiveType;
-use crate::syntax::{self, ConstantType};
+use crate::ir::{self, Fields};
-use crate::type_infer::solve::Constraint;
+use crate::syntax::Name;
+use crate::syntax::{self, ConstantType, Location};
+use crate::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
 use internment::ArcIntern;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::str::FromStr;
 
-/// This function takes a syntactic program and converts it into the IR version of the
+impl From<syntax::Program> for InferenceEngine {
-/// program, with appropriate type variables introduced and their constraints added to
+    fn from(value: syntax::Program) -> Self {
-/// the given database.
+        let syntax::Program {
-///
+            functions,
-/// If the input function has been validated (which it should be), then this should run
+            structures,
-/// into no error conditions. However, if you failed to validate the input, then this
+            body,
-/// function can panic.
+        } = value;
-pub fn convert_program(
+        let mut result = InferenceEngine {
-    mut program: syntax::Program,
+            constraints: Vec::new(),
-    constraint_db: &mut Vec<Constraint>,
+            type_definitions: HashMap::new(),
-) -> ir::Program {
+            variable_types: HashMap::new(),
-    let mut statements = Vec::new();
+            functions: HashMap::new(),
-    let mut renames = HashMap::new();
+            body: ir::Expression::Block(Location::manufactured(), ir::TypeOrVar::new(), vec![]),
-    let mut bindings = HashMap::new();
+            errors: vec![],
+            warnings: vec![],
+        };
+        let mut renames = ScopedMap::new();
 
-    for stmt in program.statements.drain(..) {
+        // first let's transfer all the type information over into our new
-        statements.append(&mut convert_statement(
+        // data structures
-            stmt,
+        for (_, structure) in structures.into_iter() {
-            constraint_db,
+            let mut fields = Fields::default();
-            &mut renames,
+
-            &mut bindings,
+            for (name, optty) in structure.fields {
-        ));
+                match optty {
+                    None => {
+                        let newty = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(name.location().clone());
+                        fields.insert(name, newty);
                     }
 
-    ir::Program { statements }
+                    Some(t) => {
+                        let existing_ty = result.convert_type(t);
+                        fields.insert(name, existing_ty);
+                    }
+                }
             }
 
-/// This function takes a syntactic statements and converts it into a series of
+            result
-/// IR statements, adding type variables and constraints as necessary.
+                .type_definitions
-///
+                .insert(structure.name.clone(), ir::TypeOrVar::Structure(fields));
-/// We generate a series of statements because we're going to flatten all
-/// incoming expressions so that they are no longer recursive. This will
-/// generate a bunch of new bindings for all the subexpressions, which we
-/// return as a bundle.
-///
-/// See the safety warning on [`convert_program`]! This function assumes that
-/// you have run [`Statement::validate`], and will trigger panics in error
-/// conditions if you have run that and had it come back clean.
-fn convert_statement(
-    statement: syntax::Statement,
-    constraint_db: &mut Vec<Constraint>,
-    renames: &mut HashMap<ArcIntern<String>, ArcIntern<String>>,
-    bindings: &mut HashMap<ArcIntern<String>, Type>,
-) -> Vec<ir::Statement> {
-    match statement {
-        syntax::Statement::Print(loc, name) => {
-            let iname = ArcIntern::new(name.to_string());
-            let final_name = renames
-                .get(&iname)
-                .map(Clone::clone)
-                .unwrap_or_else(|| iname.clone());
-            let varty = bindings
-                .get(&final_name)
-                .expect("print variable defined before use")
-                .clone();
-
-            constraint_db.push(Constraint::Printable(loc.clone(), varty.clone()));
-
-            vec![ir::Statement::Print(loc, varty, iname)]
         }
 
-        syntax::Statement::Binding(loc, name, expr) => {
+        // then transfer all the functions over to the new system
-            let (mut prereqs, expr, ty) =
+        for (_, function) in functions.into_iter() {
-                convert_expression(expr, constraint_db, renames, bindings);
+            // convert the arguments into the new type scheme. if given, use the ones
-            let iname = ArcIntern::new(name.to_string());
+            // given, otherwise generate a new type variable for us to solve for.
-            let final_name = if bindings.contains_key(&iname) {
+            let mut arguments = vec![];
-                let new_name = ir::gensym(iname.as_str());
+            for (name, ty) in function.arguments.into_iter() {
-                renames.insert(iname, new_name.clone());
+                match ty {
-                new_name
+                    None => {
+                        let inferred_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(name.location().clone());
+                        arguments.push((name, inferred_type));
+                    }
+
+                    Some(t) => {
+                        arguments.push((name, result.convert_type(t)));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            // similarly, use the provided return type if given, otherwise generate
+            // a new type variable to use.
+            let return_type = if let Some(t) = function.return_type {
+                result.convert_type(t)
             } else {
-                iname
+                ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(function.name.location().clone())
             };
 
-            bindings.insert(final_name.clone(), ty.clone());
+            let (body, body_type) = result.convert_expression(function.body, &mut renames);
-            prereqs.push(ir::Statement::Binding(loc, final_name, ty, expr));
+            result.constraints.push(Constraint::Equivalent(
-            prereqs
+                function.name.location().clone(),
+                return_type.clone(),
+                body_type,
+            ));
+
+            let new_function = ir::FunctionDefinition {
+                name: function.name,
+                arguments,
+                return_type,
+                body,
+            };
+
+            result
+                .functions
+                .insert(new_function.name.clone(), new_function);
         }
+
+        // finally we can transfer the body over
+        result.body = result.convert_expression(body, &mut renames).0;
+
+        result
     }
 }
 
+impl InferenceEngine {
     /// This function takes a syntactic expression and converts it into a series
     /// of IR statements, adding type variables and constraints as necessary.
     ///
@@ -99,280 +116,399 @@ fn convert_statement(
     /// you have run [`Statement::validate`], and will trigger panics in error
     /// conditions if you have run that and had it come back clean.
     fn convert_expression(
+        &mut self,
         expression: syntax::Expression,
-    constraint_db: &mut Vec<Constraint>,
+        renames: &mut ScopedMap<Name, ArcIntern<String>>,
-    renames: &HashMap<ArcIntern<String>, ArcIntern<String>>,
+    ) -> (ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>, ir::TypeOrVar) {
-    bindings: &mut HashMap<ArcIntern<String>, Type>,
-) -> (Vec<ir::Statement>, ir::Expression, Type) {
         match expression {
+            // converting values is mostly tedious, because there's so many cases
+            // involved
             syntax::Expression::Value(loc, val) => match val {
+                syntax::Value::Void => (
+                    ir::Expression::Atomic(ir::ValueOrRef::Value(
+                        loc,
+                        ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void),
+                        ir::Value::Void,
+                    )),
+                    ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void),
+                ),
                 syntax::Value::Number(base, mctype, value) => {
                     let (newval, newtype) = match mctype {
                         None => {
-                        let newtype = ir::gentype();
+                            let newtype = ir::TypeOrVar::new();
-                        let newval = ir::Value::Unknown(base, value);
+                            let newval = ir::Value::U64(base, value);
 
-                        constraint_db.push(Constraint::ConstantNumericType(
+                            self.constraints.push(Constraint::ConstantNumericType(
                                 loc.clone(),
                                 newtype.clone(),
                             ));
                             (newval, newtype)
                         }
+                        Some(ConstantType::Void) => (
+                            ir::Value::Void,
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void),
+                        ),
                         Some(ConstantType::U8) => (
                             ir::Value::U8(base, value as u8),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::U16) => (
                             ir::Value::U16(base, value as u16),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::U32) => (
                             ir::Value::U32(base, value as u32),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::U64) => (
                             ir::Value::U64(base, value),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::I8) => (
                             ir::Value::I8(base, value as i8),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::I16) => (
                             ir::Value::I16(base, value as i16),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::I32) => (
                             ir::Value::I32(base, value as i32),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32),
                         ),
                         Some(ConstantType::I64) => (
                             ir::Value::I64(base, value as i64),
-                        ir::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64),
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64),
                         ),
                     };
 
-                constraint_db.push(Constraint::FitsInNumType(
+                    self.constraints.push(Constraint::FitsInNumType(
                         loc.clone(),
                         newtype.clone(),
                         value,
                     ));
+
                     (
-                    vec![],
                         ir::Expression::Atomic(ir::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, newtype.clone(), newval)),
                         newtype,
                     )
                 }
             },
 
-        syntax::Expression::Reference(loc, name) => {
+            syntax::Expression::Constructor(loc, name, fields) => {
-            let iname = ArcIntern::new(name);
+                let mut result_fields = HashMap::new();
-            let final_name = renames.get(&iname).cloned().unwrap_or(iname);
+                let mut type_fields = ir::Fields::default();
-            let rtype = bindings
+                let mut prereqs = vec![];
-                .get(&final_name)
+
+                for (name, syntax_expr) in fields.into_iter() {
+                    let (field_expr, field_type) = self.convert_expression(syntax_expr, renames);
+                    type_fields.insert(name.clone(), field_type);
+                    let (prereq, value) = simplify_expr(field_expr);
+                    result_fields.insert(name.clone(), value);
+                    merge_prereq(&mut prereqs, prereq);
+                }
+
+                let result_type = ir::TypeOrVar::Structure(type_fields);
+
+                self.constraints.push(Constraint::NamedTypeIs(
+                    loc.clone(),
+                    name.clone(),
+                    result_type.clone(),
+                ));
+                let expression =
+                    ir::Expression::Construct(loc, result_type.clone(), name, result_fields);
+
+                (expression, result_type)
+            }
+
+            syntax::Expression::Reference(mut name) => {
+                if let Some(rename) = renames.get(&name) {
+                    name.rename(rename);
+                }
+
+                let result_type = self
+                    .variable_types
+                    .get(&name)
                     .cloned()
                     .expect("variable bound before use");
-            let refexp =
-                ir::Expression::Atomic(ir::ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, rtype.clone(), final_name));
 
-            (vec![], refexp, rtype)
+                let expression = ir::Expression::Atomic(ir::ValueOrRef::Ref(
+                    name.location().clone(),
+                    result_type.clone(),
+                    name.clone(),
+                ));
+
+                (expression, result_type)
+            }
+
+            syntax::Expression::FieldRef(loc, expr, field) => {
+                let (expr, expr_type) = self.convert_expression(*expr, renames);
+                let (prereqs, val_or_ref) = simplify_expr(expr);
+                let result_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new();
+                let result = ir::Expression::FieldRef(
+                    loc.clone(),
+                    result_type.clone(),
+                    expr_type.clone(),
+                    val_or_ref,
+                    field.clone(),
+                );
+
+                self.constraints.push(Constraint::TypeHasField(
+                    loc,
+                    expr_type.clone(),
+                    field,
+                    result_type.clone(),
+                ));
+
+                (finalize_expression(prereqs, result), result_type)
             }
 
             syntax::Expression::Cast(loc, target, expr) => {
-            let (mut stmts, nexpr, etype) =
+                let (expr, expr_type) = self.convert_expression(*expr, renames);
-                convert_expression(*expr, constraint_db, renames, bindings);
+                let (prereqs, val_or_ref) = simplify_expr(expr);
-            let val_or_ref = simplify_expr(nexpr, &mut stmts);
+                let target_type: ir::TypeOrVar = PrimitiveType::from_str(&target)
-            let target_prim_type = PrimitiveType::from_str(&target).expect("valid type for cast");
+                    .expect("valid type for cast")
-            let target_type = Type::Primitive(target_prim_type);
+                    .into();
                 let res = ir::Expression::Cast(loc.clone(), target_type.clone(), val_or_ref);
 
-            constraint_db.push(Constraint::CanCastTo(loc, etype, target_type.clone()));
+                self.constraints.push(Constraint::CanCastTo(
-
+                    loc,
-            (stmts, res, target_type)
+                    expr_type.clone(),
-        }
+                    target_type.clone(),
-
-        syntax::Expression::Primitive(loc, fun, mut args) => {
-            let primop = ir::Primitive::from_str(&fun).expect("valid primitive");
-            let mut stmts = vec![];
-            let mut nargs = vec![];
-            let mut atypes = vec![];
-            let ret_type = ir::gentype();
-
-            for arg in args.drain(..) {
-                let (mut astmts, aexp, atype) =
-                    convert_expression(arg, constraint_db, renames, bindings);
-
-                stmts.append(&mut astmts);
-                nargs.push(simplify_expr(aexp, &mut stmts));
-                atypes.push(atype);
-            }
-
-            constraint_db.push(Constraint::ProperPrimitiveArgs(
-                loc.clone(),
-                primop,
-                atypes.clone(),
-                ret_type.clone(),
                 ));
 
-            (
+                (finalize_expression(prereqs, res), target_type)
-                stmts,
+            }
-                ir::Expression::Primitive(loc, ret_type.clone(), primop, nargs),
+
-                ret_type,
+            syntax::Expression::Primitive(loc, name) => {
-            )
+                let primop = ir::Primitive::from_str(name.current_name()).expect("valid primitive");
+
+                match primop {
+                    ir::Primitive::Plus | ir::Primitive::Times | ir::Primitive::Divide => {
+                        let numeric_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(loc.clone());
+                        self.constraints
+                            .push(Constraint::NumericType(loc.clone(), numeric_type.clone()));
+                        let funtype = ir::TypeOrVar::Function(
+                            vec![numeric_type.clone(), numeric_type.clone()],
+                            Box::new(numeric_type.clone()),
+                        );
+                        let result_value = ir::ValueOrRef::Primitive(loc, funtype.clone(), primop);
+                        (ir::Expression::Atomic(result_value), funtype)
+                    }
+
+                    ir::Primitive::Minus => {
+                        let numeric_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(loc.clone());
+                        self.constraints
+                            .push(Constraint::NumericType(loc.clone(), numeric_type.clone()));
+                        let funtype = ir::TypeOrVar::Function(
+                            vec![numeric_type.clone(), numeric_type.clone()],
+                            Box::new(numeric_type.clone()),
+                        );
+                        let result_value = ir::ValueOrRef::Primitive(loc, funtype.clone(), primop);
+                        (ir::Expression::Atomic(result_value), funtype)
+                    }
+
+                    ir::Primitive::Print => {
+                        let arg_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(loc.clone());
+                        self.constraints
+                            .push(Constraint::Printable(loc.clone(), arg_type.clone()));
+                        let funtype = ir::TypeOrVar::Function(
+                            vec![arg_type],
+                            Box::new(ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void)),
+                        );
+                        let result_value = ir::ValueOrRef::Primitive(loc, funtype.clone(), primop);
+                        (ir::Expression::Atomic(result_value), funtype)
+                    }
+
+                    ir::Primitive::Negate => {
+                        let arg_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(loc.clone());
+                        self.constraints
+                            .push(Constraint::NumericType(loc.clone(), arg_type.clone()));
+                        self.constraints
+                            .push(Constraint::IsSigned(loc.clone(), arg_type.clone()));
+                        let funtype =
+                            ir::TypeOrVar::Function(vec![arg_type.clone()], Box::new(arg_type));
+                        let result_value = ir::ValueOrRef::Primitive(loc, funtype.clone(), primop);
+                        (ir::Expression::Atomic(result_value), funtype)
                     }
                 }
             }
 
-fn simplify_expr(expr: ir::Expression, stmts: &mut Vec<ir::Statement>) -> ir::ValueOrRef {
+            syntax::Expression::Call(loc, fun, args) => {
+                let return_type = ir::TypeOrVar::new();
+                let arg_types = args
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|_| ir::TypeOrVar::new())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();
+
+                let (fun, fun_type) = self.convert_expression(*fun, renames);
+                let target_fun_type =
+                    ir::TypeOrVar::Function(arg_types.clone(), Box::new(return_type.clone()));
+                self.constraints.push(Constraint::Equivalent(
+                    loc.clone(),
+                    fun_type,
+                    target_fun_type,
+                ));
+                let mut prereqs = vec![];
+
+                let (fun_prereqs, fun) = simplify_expr(fun);
+                merge_prereq(&mut prereqs, fun_prereqs);
+
+                let new_args = args
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .zip(arg_types)
+                    .map(|(arg, target_type)| {
+                        let (arg, arg_type) = self.convert_expression(arg, renames);
+                        let location = arg.location().clone();
+                        let (arg_prereq, new_valref) = simplify_expr(arg);
+                        merge_prereq(&mut prereqs, arg_prereq);
+                        self.constraints.push(Constraint::Equivalent(
+                            location,
+                            arg_type,
+                            target_type,
+                        ));
+                        new_valref
+                    })
+                    .collect();
+
+                let last_call =
+                    ir::Expression::Call(loc.clone(), return_type.clone(), fun, new_args);
+
+                (finalize_expressions(prereqs, last_call), return_type)
+            }
+
+            syntax::Expression::Block(loc, stmts) => {
+                let mut result_type = ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void);
+                let mut exprs = vec![];
+
+                for xpr in stmts.into_iter() {
+                    let (expr, expr_type) = self.convert_expression(xpr, renames);
+                    result_type = expr_type;
+                    exprs.push(expr);
+                }
+
+                (
+                    ir::Expression::Block(loc, result_type.clone(), exprs),
+                    result_type,
+                )
+            }
+
+            syntax::Expression::Binding(loc, name, expr) => {
+                let (expr, expr_type) = self.convert_expression(*expr, renames);
+                let final_name = self.finalize_name(renames, name);
+                self.variable_types
+                    .insert(final_name.clone(), expr_type.clone());
+                let result_expr =
+                    ir::Expression::Bind(loc, final_name, expr_type.clone(), Box::new(expr));
+
+                (result_expr, expr_type)
+            }
+
+            syntax::Expression::Function(_, _, _, _, _) => {
+                panic!(
+                    "Function expressions should not survive validation to get to type checking!"
+                );
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn convert_type(&mut self, ty: syntax::Type) -> ir::TypeOrVar {
+        match ty {
+            syntax::Type::Named(x) => match PrimitiveType::from_str(x.current_name()) {
+                Err(_) => {
+                    let retval = ir::TypeOrVar::new_located(x.location().clone());
+                    self.constraints.push(Constraint::NamedTypeIs(
+                        x.location().clone(),
+                        x,
+                        retval.clone(),
+                    ));
+                    retval
+                }
+                Ok(v) => ir::TypeOrVar::Primitive(v),
+            },
+
+            syntax::Type::Struct(fields) => {
+                let mut new_fields = ir::Fields::default();
+
+                for (name, field_type) in fields.into_iter() {
+                    let new_field_type = field_type
+                        .map(|x| self.convert_type(x))
+                        .unwrap_or_else(ir::TypeOrVar::new);
+                    new_fields.insert(name, new_field_type);
+                }
+
+                ir::TypeOrVar::Structure(new_fields)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn finalize_name(
+        &mut self,
+        renames: &mut ScopedMap<Name, ArcIntern<String>>,
+        mut name: syntax::Name,
+    ) -> syntax::Name {
+        if self.variable_types.contains_key(&name) {
+            let new_name = Name::gensym(name.original_name()).intern();
+            renames.insert(name.clone(), new_name.clone());
+            name.rename(&new_name);
+            name
+        } else {
+            name
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn simplify_expr(
+    expr: ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>,
+) -> (
+    Option<ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>>,
+    ir::ValueOrRef<ir::TypeOrVar>,
+) {
     match expr {
-        ir::Expression::Atomic(v_or_ref) => v_or_ref,
+        ir::Expression::Atomic(v_or_ref) => (None, v_or_ref),
         expr => {
             let etype = expr.type_of().clone();
             let loc = expr.location().clone();
-            let nname = ir::gensym("g");
+            let nname = Name::located_gensym(loc.clone(), "g");
-            let nbinding = ir::Statement::Binding(loc.clone(), nname.clone(), etype.clone(), expr);
+            let nbinding =
+                ir::Expression::Bind(loc.clone(), nname.clone(), etype.clone(), Box::new(expr));
 
-            stmts.push(nbinding);
+            (Some(nbinding), ir::ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, etype, nname))
-            ir::ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, etype, nname)
         }
     }
 }
 
-#[cfg(test)]
+fn finalize_expression(
-mod tests {
+    prereq: Option<ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>>,
-    use super::*;
+    actual: ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>,
-    use crate::syntax::Location;
+) -> ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar> {
-
+    if let Some(prereq) = prereq {
-    fn one() -> syntax::Expression {
+        ir::Expression::Block(
-        syntax::Expression::Value(
+            prereq.location().clone(),
-            Location::manufactured(),
+            actual.type_of().clone(),
-            syntax::Value::Number(None, None, 1),
+            vec![prereq, actual],
         )
+    } else {
+        actual
+    }
 }
 
-    fn vec_contains<T, F: Fn(&T) -> bool>(x: &[T], f: F) -> bool {
+fn finalize_expressions(
-        for x in x.iter() {
+    mut prereqs: Vec<ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>>,
-            if f(x) {
+    actual: ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar>,
-                return true;
+) -> ir::Expression<ir::TypeOrVar> {
+    if prereqs.is_empty() {
+        actual
+    } else {
+        let return_type = actual.type_of();
+        let loc = actual.location().clone();
+        prereqs.push(actual);
+        ir::Expression::Block(loc, return_type, prereqs)
     }
 }
-        false
-    }
 
-    fn infer_expression(
+fn merge_prereq<T>(left: &mut Vec<T>, prereq: Option<T>) {
-        x: syntax::Expression,
+    if let Some(item) = prereq {
-    ) -> (ir::Expression, Vec<ir::Statement>, Vec<Constraint>, Type) {
+        left.push(item)
-        let mut constraints = Vec::new();
-        let renames = HashMap::new();
-        let mut bindings = HashMap::new();
-        let (stmts, expr, ty) = convert_expression(x, &mut constraints, &renames, &mut bindings);
-        (expr, stmts, constraints, ty)
-    }
-
-    fn infer_statement(x: syntax::Statement) -> (Vec<ir::Statement>, Vec<Constraint>) {
-        let mut constraints = Vec::new();
-        let mut renames = HashMap::new();
-        let mut bindings = HashMap::new();
-        let res = convert_statement(x, &mut constraints, &mut renames, &mut bindings);
-        (res, constraints)
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn constant_one() {
-        let (expr, stmts, constraints, ty) = infer_expression(one());
-        assert!(stmts.is_empty());
-        assert!(matches!(
-            expr,
-            ir::Expression::Atomic(ir::ValueOrRef::Value(_, _, ir::Value::Unknown(None, 1)))
-        ));
-        assert!(vec_contains(&constraints, |x| matches!(
-            x,
-            Constraint::FitsInNumType(_, _, 1)
-        )));
-        assert!(vec_contains(
-            &constraints,
-            |x| matches!(x, Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, t) if t == &ty)
-        ));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn one_plus_one() {
-        let opo = syntax::Expression::Primitive(
-            Location::manufactured(),
-            "+".to_string(),
-            vec![one(), one()],
-        );
-        let (expr, stmts, constraints, ty) = infer_expression(opo);
-        assert!(stmts.is_empty());
-        assert!(matches!(expr, ir::Expression::Primitive(_, t, ir::Primitive::Plus, _) if t == ty));
-        assert!(vec_contains(&constraints, |x| matches!(
-            x,
-            Constraint::FitsInNumType(_, _, 1)
-        )));
-        assert!(vec_contains(
-            &constraints,
-            |x| matches!(x, Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, t) if t != &ty)
-        ));
-        assert!(vec_contains(
-            &constraints,
-            |x| matches!(x, Constraint::ProperPrimitiveArgs(_, ir::Primitive::Plus, args, ret) if args.len() == 2 && ret == &ty)
-        ));
-    }
-
-    #[test]
-    fn one_plus_one_plus_one() {
-        let stmt = syntax::Statement::parse(1, "x = 1 + 1 + 1;").expect("basic parse");
-        let (stmts, constraints) = infer_statement(stmt);
-        assert_eq!(stmts.len(), 2);
-        let ir::Statement::Binding(
-            _args,
-            name1,
-            temp_ty1,
-            ir::Expression::Primitive(_, primty1, ir::Primitive::Plus, primargs1),
-        ) = stmts.get(0).expect("item two")
-        else {
-            panic!("Failed to match first statement");
-        };
-        let ir::Statement::Binding(
-            _args,
-            name2,
-            temp_ty2,
-            ir::Expression::Primitive(_, primty2, ir::Primitive::Plus, primargs2),
-        ) = stmts.get(1).expect("item two")
-        else {
-            panic!("Failed to match second statement");
-        };
-        let &[ir::ValueOrRef::Value(_, ref left1ty, _), ir::ValueOrRef::Value(_, ref right1ty, _)] =
-            &primargs1[..]
-        else {
-            panic!("Failed to match first arguments");
-        };
-        let &[ir::ValueOrRef::Ref(_, _, ref left2name), ir::ValueOrRef::Value(_, ref right2ty, _)] =
-            &primargs2[..]
-        else {
-            panic!("Failed to match first arguments");
-        };
-        assert_ne!(name1, name2);
-        assert_ne!(temp_ty1, temp_ty2);
-        assert_ne!(primty1, primty2);
-        assert_eq!(name1, left2name);
-        assert!(vec_contains(
-            &constraints,
-            |x| matches!(x, Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, t) if t == left1ty)
-        ));
-        assert!(vec_contains(
-            &constraints,
-            |x| matches!(x, Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, t) if t == right1ty)
-        ));
-        assert!(vec_contains(
-            &constraints,
-            |x| matches!(x, Constraint::ConstantNumericType(_, t) if t == right2ty)
-        ));
-        for (i, s) in stmts.iter().enumerate() {
-            println!("{}: {:?}", i, s);
-        }
-        for (i, c) in constraints.iter().enumerate() {
-            println!("{}: {:?}", i, c);
-        }
     }
 }

src/type_infer/error.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,145 @@
+use super::constraint::Constraint;
+use crate::eval::PrimitiveType;
+use crate::ir::{Primitive, TypeOrVar};
+use crate::syntax::{Location, Name};
+use codespan_reporting::diagnostic::Diagnostic;
+
+/// The various kinds of errors that can occur while doing type inference.
+pub enum TypeInferenceError {
+    /// The user provide a constant that is too large for its inferred type.
+    ConstantTooLarge(Location, PrimitiveType, u64),
+    /// Somehow we're trying to use a non-number as a number
+    NotANumber(Location, PrimitiveType),
+    /// The two types needed to be equivalent, but weren't.
+    NotEquivalent(Location, TypeOrVar, TypeOrVar),
+    /// We cannot safely cast the first type to the second type.
+    CannotSafelyCast(Location, PrimitiveType, PrimitiveType),
+    /// The primitive invocation provided the wrong number of arguments.
+    WrongPrimitiveArity(Location, Primitive, usize, usize, usize),
+    /// We cannot cast between the type types, for any number of reasons
+    CannotCast(Location, TypeOrVar, TypeOrVar),
+    /// We cannot turn a number into a function.
+    CannotMakeNumberAFunction(Location, TypeOrVar, Option<u64>),
+    /// We cannot turn a number into a Structure.
+    CannotMakeNumberAStructure(Location, TypeOrVar, Option<u64>),
+    /// We had a constraint we just couldn't solve.
+    CouldNotSolve(Constraint),
+    /// Functions are not printable.
+    FunctionsAreNotPrintable(Location),
+    /// The given type isn't signed, and can't be negated
+    IsNotSigned(Location, TypeOrVar),
+    /// The given type doesn't have the given field.
+    NoFieldForType(Location, Name, TypeOrVar),
+    /// There is no type with the given name.
+    UnknownTypeName(Location, Name),
+}
+
+impl From<TypeInferenceError> for Diagnostic<usize> {
+    fn from(value: TypeInferenceError) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            TypeInferenceError::ConstantTooLarge(loc, primty, value) => loc
+                .labelled_error("constant too large for type")
+                .with_message(format!(
+                    "Type {} has a max value of {}, which is smaller than {}",
+                    primty,
+                    primty.max_value().expect("constant type has max value"),
+                    value
+                )),
+            TypeInferenceError::NotANumber(loc, primty) => loc
+                .labelled_error("not a numeric type")
+                .with_message(format!(
+                    "For some reason, we're trying to use {} as a numeric type",
+                    primty,
+                )),
+            TypeInferenceError::NotEquivalent(loc, ty1, ty2) => loc
+                .labelled_error("type inference error")
+                .with_message(format!("Expected type {}, received type {}", ty1, ty2)),
+            TypeInferenceError::CannotSafelyCast(loc, ty1, ty2) => loc
+                .labelled_error("unsafe type cast")
+                .with_message(format!("Cannot safely cast {} to {}", ty1, ty2)),
+            TypeInferenceError::WrongPrimitiveArity(loc, prim, lower, upper, observed) => loc
+                .labelled_error("wrong number of arguments")
+                .with_message(format!(
+                    "expected {} for {}, received {}",
+                    if lower == upper && lower > 1 {
+                        format!("{} arguments", lower)
+                    } else if lower == upper {
+                        format!("{} argument", lower)
+                    } else {
+                        format!("{}-{} arguments", lower, upper)
+                    },
+                    prim,
+                    observed
+                )),
+            TypeInferenceError::CannotCast(loc, t1, t2) => loc
+                .labelled_error("cannot cast between types")
+                .with_message(format!(
+                    "tried to cast from {} to {}",
+                    t1, t2,
+                )),
+            TypeInferenceError::CannotMakeNumberAFunction(loc, t, val) => loc
+                .labelled_error(if let Some(val) = val {
+                    format!("cannot turn {} into a function", val)
+                } else {
+                    "cannot use a constant as a function type".to_string()
+                })
+                .with_message(format!("function type was {}", t)),
+            TypeInferenceError::CannotMakeNumberAStructure(loc, t, val) => loc
+                .labelled_error(if let Some(val) = val {
+                    format!("cannot turn {} into a function", val)
+                } else {
+                    "cannot use a constant as a function type".to_string()
+                })
+                .with_message(format!("function type was {}", t)),
+            TypeInferenceError::FunctionsAreNotPrintable(loc) => loc
+                .labelled_error("cannot print function values"),
+            TypeInferenceError::IsNotSigned(loc, pt) => loc
+                .labelled_error(format!("type {} is not signed", pt))
+                .with_message("and so it cannot be negated"),
+            TypeInferenceError::NoFieldForType(loc, field, t) => loc
+                .labelled_error(format!("no field {} available for type {}", field, t)),
+            TypeInferenceError::UnknownTypeName(loc , name) => loc
+                .labelled_error(format!("unknown type named {}", name)),
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::CanCastTo(loc, a, b)) => {
+                loc.labelled_error("internal error").with_message(format!(
+                    "could not determine if it was safe to cast from {} to {}",
+                    a, b
+                ))
+            }
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::TypeHasField(loc, a, field, _)) => {
+                loc.labelled_error("internal error")
+                   .with_message(format!("fould not determine if type {} has field {}", a, field))
+            }
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::Equivalent(loc, a, b)) => {
+                loc.labelled_error("internal error").with_message(format!(
+                    "could not determine if {} and {} were equivalent",
+                    a, b
+                ))
+            }
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::FitsInNumType(loc, ty, val)) => {
+                loc.labelled_error("internal error").with_message(format!(
+                    "Could not determine if {} could fit in {}",
+                    val, ty
+                ))
+            }
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::NumericType(loc, ty)) => loc
+                .labelled_error("internal error")
+                .with_message(format!("Could not determine if {} was a numeric type", ty)),
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::ConstantNumericType(loc, ty)) =>
+                panic!("What? Constants should always eventually be solved, even by default; {:?} and type {:?}", loc, ty),
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::Printable(loc, ty)) => loc
+                .labelled_error("internal error")
+                .with_message(format!("Could not determine if type {} was printable", ty)),
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::IsSomething(loc, _)) => {
+                loc.labelled_error("could not infer type")
+                    .with_message("Could not find *any* type information; is this an unused function argument?")
+            }
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::IsSigned(loc, t)) => loc
+                .labelled_error("internal error")
+                .with_message(format!("could not infer that type {} was signed", t)),
+            TypeInferenceError::CouldNotSolve(Constraint::NamedTypeIs(loc, name, ty)) => loc
+                .labelled_error("internal error")
+                .with_message(format!("could not infer that the name {} refers to {}", name, ty)),
+        }
+    }
+}

src/type_infer/finalize.rs

@@ -1,185 +1,238 @@
-use super::{ast as input, solve::TypeResolutions};
+use crate::eval::PrimitiveType;
-use crate::{eval::PrimitiveType, ir as output};
+use crate::ir::{Expression, FunctionDefinition, Program, Type, TypeOrVar, Value, ValueOrRef};
+use crate::syntax::Name;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 
-pub fn finalize_program(
+pub type TypeResolutions = HashMap<Name, Type>;
-    mut program: input::Program,
+
-    resolutions: &TypeResolutions,
+impl super::InferenceEngine {
-) -> output::Program {
+    pub fn finalize_program(self, resolutions: TypeResolutions) -> Program<Type> {
-    output::Program {
+        // we can't do this in place without some type nonsense, so we're going to
-        statements: program
+        // create a brand new set of program arguments and then construct the new
-            .statements
+        // `Program` from them.
-            .drain(..)
+        let mut functions = HashMap::new();
-            .map(|x| finalize_statement(x, resolutions))
+        let mut type_definitions = HashMap::new();
-            .collect(),
+
-    }
+        // this is handy for debugging
+        for (name, ty) in resolutions.iter() {
+            tracing::debug!(name = %name, resolved_type = %ty, "resolved type variable");
         }
 
-fn finalize_statement(
+        // copy over the type definitions
-    statement: input::Statement,
+        for (name, def) in self.type_definitions.into_iter() {
-    resolutions: &TypeResolutions,
+            type_definitions.insert(name, finalize_type(def, &resolutions));
-) -> output::Statement {
+        }
-    match statement {
+
-        input::Statement::Binding(loc, var, ty, expr) => output::Statement::Binding(
+        // now copy over the functions
-            loc,
+        for (name, function_def) in self.functions.into_iter() {
-            var,
+            assert_eq!(name, function_def.name);
-            finalize_type(ty, resolutions),
+
-            finalize_expression(expr, resolutions),
+            let body = finalize_expression(function_def.body, &resolutions);
-        ),
+            let arguments = function_def
-        input::Statement::Print(loc, ty, var) => {
+                .arguments
-            output::Statement::Print(loc, finalize_type(ty, resolutions), var)
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(name, t)| (name, finalize_type(t, &resolutions)))
+                .collect();
+
+            functions.insert(
+                name,
+                FunctionDefinition {
+                    name: function_def.name,
+                    arguments,
+                    return_type: body.type_of(),
+                    body,
+                },
+            );
+        }
+
+        // and now we can finally compute the new body
+        let body = finalize_expression(self.body, &resolutions);
+
+        Program {
+            functions,
+            type_definitions,
+            body,
         }
     }
 }
 
 fn finalize_expression(
-    expression: input::Expression,
+    expression: Expression<TypeOrVar>,
     resolutions: &TypeResolutions,
-) -> output::Expression {
+) -> Expression<Type> {
     match expression {
-        input::Expression::Atomic(val_or_ref) => {
+        Expression::Atomic(val_or_ref) => {
-            output::Expression::Atomic(finalize_val_or_ref(val_or_ref, resolutions))
+            Expression::Atomic(finalize_val_or_ref(val_or_ref, resolutions))
         }
-        input::Expression::Cast(loc, target, val_or_ref) => output::Expression::Cast(
+
+        Expression::Cast(loc, target, val_or_ref) => Expression::Cast(
             loc,
             finalize_type(target, resolutions),
             finalize_val_or_ref(val_or_ref, resolutions),
         ),
-        input::Expression::Primitive(loc, ty, prim, mut args) => output::Expression::Primitive(
+
+        Expression::Construct(loc, ty, name, fields) => Expression::Construct(
             loc,
             finalize_type(ty, resolutions),
-            prim,
+            name,
-            args.drain(..)
+            fields
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(|(k, v)| (k, finalize_val_or_ref(v, resolutions)))
+                .collect(),
+        ),
+
+        Expression::FieldRef(loc, ty, struct_type, valref, field) => Expression::FieldRef(
+            loc,
+            finalize_type(ty, resolutions),
+            finalize_type(struct_type, resolutions),
+            finalize_val_or_ref(valref, resolutions),
+            field,
+        ),
+
+        Expression::Block(loc, ty, exprs) => {
+            let mut final_exprs = Vec::with_capacity(exprs.len());
+
+            for expr in exprs {
+                let newexpr = finalize_expression(expr, resolutions);
+
+                if let Expression::Block(_, _, mut subexprs) = newexpr {
+                    final_exprs.append(&mut subexprs);
+                } else {
+                    final_exprs.push(newexpr);
+                }
+            }
+
+            Expression::Block(loc, finalize_type(ty, resolutions), final_exprs)
+        }
+
+        Expression::Call(loc, ty, fun, args) => Expression::Call(
+            loc,
+            finalize_type(ty, resolutions),
+            finalize_val_or_ref(fun, resolutions),
+            args.into_iter()
                 .map(|x| finalize_val_or_ref(x, resolutions))
                 .collect(),
         ),
+
+        Expression::Bind(loc, var, ty, subexp) => Expression::Bind(
+            loc,
+            var,
+            finalize_type(ty, resolutions),
+            Box::new(finalize_expression(*subexp, resolutions)),
+        ),
     }
 }
 
-fn finalize_type(ty: input::Type, resolutions: &TypeResolutions) -> output::Type {
+fn finalize_type(ty: TypeOrVar, resolutions: &TypeResolutions) -> Type {
     match ty {
-        input::Type::Primitive(x) => output::Type::Primitive(x),
+        TypeOrVar::Primitive(x) => Type::Primitive(x),
-        input::Type::Variable(_, tvar) => match resolutions.get(&tvar) {
+        TypeOrVar::Variable(_, tvar) => match resolutions.get(&tvar) {
             None => panic!("Did not resolve type for type variable {}", tvar),
-            Some(pt) => output::Type::Primitive(*pt),
+            Some(pt) => {
+                tracing::trace!(type_variable = %tvar, final_type = %pt, "finalizing variable type");
+                pt.clone()
+            }
         },
+        TypeOrVar::Function(mut args, ret) => Type::Function(
+            args.drain(..)
+                .map(|x| finalize_type(x, resolutions))
+                .collect(),
+            Box::new(finalize_type(*ret, resolutions)),
+        ),
+        TypeOrVar::Structure(fields) => {
+            Type::Structure(fields.map(|subtype| finalize_type(subtype, resolutions)))
+        }
     }
 }
 
 fn finalize_val_or_ref(
-    valref: input::ValueOrRef,
+    valref: ValueOrRef<TypeOrVar>,
     resolutions: &TypeResolutions,
-) -> output::ValueOrRef {
+) -> ValueOrRef<Type> {
     match valref {
-        input::ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, ty, var) => {
+        ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, ty, var) => ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, finalize_type(ty, resolutions), var),
-            output::ValueOrRef::Ref(loc, finalize_type(ty, resolutions), var)
+        ValueOrRef::Primitive(loc, ty, prim) => {
+            ValueOrRef::Primitive(loc, finalize_type(ty, resolutions), prim)
         }
-        input::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, ty, val) => {
+        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, ty, val) => {
             let new_type = finalize_type(ty, resolutions);
 
             match val {
-                input::Value::Unknown(base, value) => match new_type {
+                // U64 is essentially "unknown" for us, so we use the inferred type
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
+                Value::U64(base, value) => match new_type {
-                        loc,
+                    Type::Function(_, _) => {
-                        new_type,
+                        panic!("Somehow inferred that a constant was a function")
-                        output::Value::U8(base, value as u8),
+                    }
-                    ),
+                    Type::Structure(_) => {
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
+                        panic!("Somehow inferred that a constant was a structure")
-                        loc,
+                    }
-                        new_type,
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void) => {
-                        output::Value::U16(base, value as u16),
+                        panic!("Somehow inferred that a constant was void")
-                    ),
+                    }
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8) => {
-                        loc,
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U8(base, value as u8))
-                        new_type,
+                    }
-                        output::Value::U32(base, value as u32),
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16) => {
-                    ),
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U16(base, value as u16))
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64) => {
+                    }
-                        output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::U64(base, value))
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32) => {
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U32(base, value as u32))
+                    }
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64) => {
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U64(base, value))
+                    }
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8) => {
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I8(base, value as i8))
+                    }
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16) => {
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I16(base, value as i16))
+                    }
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32) => {
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I32(base, value as i32))
+                    }
+                    Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64) => {
+                        ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I64(base, value as i64))
                     }
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
-                        loc,
-                        new_type,
-                        output::Value::I8(base, value as i8),
-                    ),
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
-                        loc,
-                        new_type,
-                        output::Value::I16(base, value as i16),
-                    ),
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
-                        loc,
-                        new_type,
-                        output::Value::I32(base, value as i32),
-                    ),
-                    output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64) => output::ValueOrRef::Value(
-                        loc,
-                        new_type,
-                        output::Value::I64(base, value as i64),
-                    ),
                 },
 
-                input::Value::U8(base, value) => {
+                Value::U8(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U8(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U8)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::U8(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::U16(base, value) => {
+                Value::U16(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U16(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U16)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::U16(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::U32(base, value) => {
+                Value::U32(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::U32(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U32)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::U32(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::U64(base, value) => {
+                Value::I8(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I8(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::U64)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::U64(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::I8(base, value) => {
+                Value::I16(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I16(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I8)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::I8(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::I16(base, value) => {
+                Value::I32(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I32(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I16)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::I16(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::I32(base, value) => {
+                Value::I64(base, value) => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::I64(base, value))
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I32)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::I32(base, value))
                 }
 
-                input::Value::I64(base, value) => {
+                Value::Void => {
-                    assert!(matches!(
+                    assert!(matches!(new_type, Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::Void)));
-                        new_type,
+                    ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, Value::Void)
-                        output::Type::Primitive(PrimitiveType::I64)
-                    ));
-                    output::ValueOrRef::Value(loc, new_type, output::Value::I64(base, value))
                 }
             }
         }

src/type_infer/result.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+use super::error::TypeInferenceError;
+use super::warning::TypeInferenceWarning;
+
+/// The results of type inference; like [`Result`], but with a bit more information.
+///
+/// This result is parameterized, because sometimes it's handy to return slightly
+/// different things; there's a [`TypeInferenceResult::map`] function for performing
+/// those sorts of conversions.
+pub enum TypeInferenceResult<Result> {
+    Success {
+        result: Result,
+        warnings: Vec<TypeInferenceWarning>,
+    },
+    Failure {
+        errors: Vec<TypeInferenceError>,
+        warnings: Vec<TypeInferenceWarning>,
+    },
+}
+
+impl<R> TypeInferenceResult<R> {
+    // If this was a successful type inference, run the function over the result to
+    // create a new result.
+    //
+    // This is the moral equivalent of [`Result::map`], but for type inference results.
+    pub fn map<U, F>(self, f: F) -> TypeInferenceResult<U>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(R) -> U,
+    {
+        match self {
+            TypeInferenceResult::Success { result, warnings } => TypeInferenceResult::Success {
+                result: f(result),
+                warnings,
+            },
+
+            TypeInferenceResult::Failure { errors, warnings } => {
+                TypeInferenceResult::Failure { errors, warnings }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // Return the final result, or panic if it's not a success
+    pub fn expect(self, msg: &str) -> R {
+        match self {
+            TypeInferenceResult::Success { result, .. } => result,
+            TypeInferenceResult::Failure { .. } => {
+                panic!("tried to get value from failed type inference: {}", msg)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}

src/type_infer/warning.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+use crate::ir::TypeOrVar;
+use crate::syntax::Location;
+use codespan_reporting::diagnostic::Diagnostic;
+
+/// Warnings that we might want to tell the user about.
+///
+/// These are fine, probably, but could indicate some behavior the user might not
+/// expect, and so they might want to do something about them.
+pub enum TypeInferenceWarning {
+    DefaultedTo(Location, TypeOrVar),
+}
+
+impl From<TypeInferenceWarning> for Diagnostic<usize> {
+    fn from(value: TypeInferenceWarning) -> Self {
+        match value {
+            TypeInferenceWarning::DefaultedTo(loc, ty) => Diagnostic::warning()
+                .with_labels(vec![loc.primary_label().with_message("unknown type")])
+                .with_message(format!("Defaulted unknown type to {}", ty)),
+        }
+    }
+}

src/util.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+pub mod pretty;
+pub mod scoped_map;
+pub mod warning_result;
+pub mod weighted_map;

src/util/pretty.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+use pretty::Arena;
+
+pub type Allocator<'a> = Arena<'a, ()>;
+
+macro_rules! pretty_function_type {
+    ($allocator: ident, $args: ident, $rettype: ident) => {
+        $allocator
+            .intersperse(
+                $args.iter().map(|x| x.pretty($allocator)),
+                $allocator.text(","),
+            )
+            .parens()
+            .append($allocator.space())
+            .append($allocator.text("->"))
+            .append($allocator.space())
+            .append($rettype.pretty($allocator))
+    };
+}
+
+macro_rules! derived_display {
+    ($type: ty) => {
+        impl std::fmt::Display for $type {
+            fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+                let arena = pretty::Arena::new();
+                let doc = self.pretty(&arena);
+                doc.render_fmt(732, f)
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+// this is a dumb Rust trick to export the functions to the rest
+// of the crate, but not globally.
+pub(crate) use derived_display;
+pub(crate) use pretty_function_type;

src/util/scoped_map.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,134 @@
+use std::borrow::Borrow;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::hash::Hash;
+
+/// A version of [`std::collections::HashMap`] with a built-in notion of scope.
+#[derive(Clone)]
+pub struct ScopedMap<K: Eq + Hash + PartialEq, V> {
+    scopes: Vec<HashMap<K, V>>,
+}
+
+impl<K: Eq + Hash + PartialEq, V> Default for ScopedMap<K, V> {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        ScopedMap::new()
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: Eq + Hash + PartialEq, V> ScopedMap<K, V> {
+    /// Generate a new scoped map.
+    ///
+    /// In addition to generate the map structure, this method also generates
+    /// an initial scope for use by the caller.
+    pub fn new() -> ScopedMap<K, V> {
+        ScopedMap {
+            scopes: vec![HashMap::new()],
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get a value from the scoped map.
+    pub fn get<Q>(&self, k: &Q) -> Option<&V>
+    where
+        K: Borrow<Q>,
+        Q: Hash + Eq + ?Sized,
+    {
+        for map in self.scopes.iter().rev() {
+            match map.get(k) {
+                None => continue,
+                Some(v) => return Some(v),
+            }
+        }
+        None
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if the map contains the given key.
+    pub fn contains_key(&self, k: &K) -> bool {
+        self.scopes.iter().any(|x| x.contains_key(k))
+    }
+
+    /// Insert a value into the current binding scope.
+    ///
+    /// If this variable is bound in the current scope, then its value will be
+    /// overridden. If it's bound in a previous scope, however, that value will
+    /// be shadowed, so that its value will preserved if/when the current scope
+    /// is popped.
+    pub fn insert(&mut self, k: K, v: V) {
+        self.scopes
+            .last_mut()
+            .expect("tried to insert into ScopedMap with no scopes")
+            .insert(k, v);
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new scope.
+    ///
+    /// Modifications to this scope will shadow all previous scopes without
+    /// modifying them. Consider the following examples:
+    ///
+    /// ```
+    /// use ngr::util::scoped_map::ScopedMap;
+    ///
+    /// let mut example1 = ScopedMap::new();
+    /// example1.insert(1, true);
+    /// example1.insert(1, false);
+    /// assert_eq!(Some(&false), example1.get(&1));
+    /// let mut example2 = ScopedMap::new();
+    /// example2.insert(1, true);
+    /// example2.new_scope();
+    /// example2.insert(1, false);
+    /// assert_eq!(Some(&false), example2.get(&1));
+    /// example2.release_scope().expect("scope releases");
+    /// assert_eq!(Some(&true), example2.get(&1));
+    /// ```
+    pub fn new_scope(&mut self) {
+        self.scopes.push(HashMap::new());
+    }
+
+    /// Pop the current scope, returning to whatever was bound in the previous
+    /// scope. If there is no prior scope, `None` will be returned.
+    pub fn release_scope(&mut self) -> Option<HashMap<K, V>> {
+        self.scopes.pop()
+    }
+
+    /// Create a new scoped set by mapping over the values of this one.
+    pub fn map_values<F, W>(self, f: F) -> ScopedMap<K, W>
+    where
+        F: Fn(V) -> W,
+    {
+        let mut scopes = Vec::with_capacity(self.scopes.len());
+
+        for scope in self.scopes {
+            let mut map = HashMap::with_capacity(scope.len());
+
+            for (k, v) in scope {
+                map.insert(k, f(v));
+            }
+
+            scopes.push(map);
+        }
+
+        ScopedMap { scopes }
+    }
+
+    /// Returns true if this map is completely empty, at every level of
+    /// scope.
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.scopes.iter().all(|x| x.is_empty())
+    }
+}
+
+impl<K: Clone + Eq + Hash, V: Clone> ScopedMap<K, V> {
+    /// Returns the set of all variables bound at this time, with shadowed
+    /// variables hidden.
+    pub fn bindings(&self) -> HashMap<K, V> {
+        let mut result = HashMap::new();
+
+        for scope in self.scopes.iter().rev() {
+            for (key, value) in scope.iter() {
+                if !result.contains_key(key) {
+                    result.insert(key.clone(), value.clone());
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        result
+    }
+}

src/util/warning_result.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,155 @@
+use codespan_reporting::diagnostic::Diagnostic;
+
+/// This type is like `Result`, except that both the Ok case and Err case
+/// can also include warning data.
+///
+/// Unfortunately, this type cannot be used with `?`, and so should probably
+/// only be used when it's really, really handy to be able to carry this
+/// sort of information. But when it is handy (for example, in type checking
+/// and in early validation), it's really useful.
+pub enum WarningResult<T, W, E> {
+    Ok(T, Vec<W>),
+    Err(Vec<E>, Vec<W>),
+}
+
+impl<T, W, E> WarningResult<T, W, E> {
+    pub fn ok(value: T) -> Self {
+        WarningResult::Ok(value, vec![])
+    }
+
+    pub fn err(error: E) -> Self {
+        WarningResult::Err(vec![error], vec![])
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_ok(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, WarningResult::Ok(_, _))
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_err(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, WarningResult::Err(_, _))
+    }
+
+    pub fn warnings(&self) -> &[W] {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Ok(_, warns) => warns.as_slice(),
+            WarningResult::Err(_, warns) => warns.as_slice(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn into_result(self) -> Option<T> {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Ok(v, _) => Some(v),
+            WarningResult::Err(_, _) => None,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn into_errors(self) -> Option<Vec<E>> {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Ok(_, _) => None,
+            WarningResult::Err(errs, _) => Some(errs),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn add_warning(&mut self, warning: W) {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Ok(_, warns) => warns.push(warning),
+            WarningResult::Err(_, warns) => warns.push(warning),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn add_error(&mut self, error: E) {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Ok(_, warns) => {
+                *self = WarningResult::Err(vec![error], std::mem::take(warns))
+            }
+            WarningResult::Err(errs, _) => errs.push(error),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn modify<F>(&mut self, f: F)
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(&mut T),
+    {
+        if let WarningResult::Ok(v, _) = self {
+            f(v);
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn map<F, R>(self, f: F) -> WarningResult<R, W, E>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(T) -> R,
+    {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Ok(v, ws) => WarningResult::Ok(f(v), ws),
+            WarningResult::Err(e, ws) => WarningResult::Err(e, ws),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Merges two results together using the given function to combine `Ok`
+    /// results into a single value.
+    ///
+    pub fn merge_with<F, O>(mut self, other: WarningResult<O, W, E>, f: F) -> WarningResult<T, W, E>
+    where
+        F: FnOnce(T, O) -> Result<T, E>,
+    {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Err(ref mut errors1, ref mut warns1) => match other {
+                WarningResult::Err(mut errors2, mut warns2) => {
+                    errors1.append(&mut errors2);
+                    warns1.append(&mut warns2);
+                    self
+                }
+
+                WarningResult::Ok(_, mut ws) => {
+                    warns1.append(&mut ws);
+                    self
+                }
+            },
+
+            WarningResult::Ok(value1, mut warns1) => match other {
+                WarningResult::Err(errors, mut warns2) => {
+                    warns2.append(&mut warns1);
+                    WarningResult::Err(errors, warns2)
+                }
+
+                WarningResult::Ok(value2, mut warns2) => {
+                    warns1.append(&mut warns2);
+                    match f(value1, value2) {
+                        Ok(final_value) => WarningResult::Ok(final_value, warns1),
+                        Err(e) => WarningResult::Err(vec![e], warns1),
+                    }
+                }
+            },
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T, W, E> WarningResult<T, W, E>
+where
+    W: Into<Diagnostic<usize>>,
+    E: Into<Diagnostic<usize>>,
+{
+    /// Returns the complete set of diagnostics (warnings and errors) as an
+    /// Iterator.
+    ///
+    /// This function removes the diagnostics from the result! So calling
+    /// this twice is not advised.
+    pub fn diagnostics(&mut self) -> impl Iterator<Item = Diagnostic<usize>> {
+        match self {
+            WarningResult::Err(errors, warnings) => std::mem::take(errors)
+                .into_iter()
+                .map(Into::into)
+                .chain(std::mem::take(warnings).into_iter().map(Into::into)),
+            WarningResult::Ok(_, warnings) =>
+            // this is a moderately ridiculous hack to get around
+            // the two match arms returning different iterator
+            // types
+            {
+                vec![]
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .map(Into::into)
+                    .chain(std::mem::take(warnings).into_iter().map(Into::into))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}

src/util/weighted_map.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+use rand::distributions::{Distribution, WeightedIndex};
+
+pub struct WeightedMap<T: Clone> {
+    index: WeightedIndex<usize>,
+    items: Vec<T>,
+}
+
+impl<T: Clone> WeightedMap<T> {
+    pub fn new(map: &[(usize, T)]) -> Self {
+        let index = WeightedIndex::new(map.iter().map(|x| x.0)).unwrap();
+        let items = map.iter().map(|x| x.1.clone()).collect();
+        WeightedMap { index, items }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<T: Clone> Distribution<T> for WeightedMap<T> {
+    fn sample<R: rand::prelude::Rng + ?Sized>(&self, rng: &mut R) -> T {
+        let idx = self.index.sample(rng);
+        self.items.get(idx).unwrap().clone()
+    }
+}